Introduction to Thermal Sciences: Thermodynamics, Fluid Dynamics, Heat Transfer

INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 THERMAL ENERGY SCIENCES 2
1.3 BASIC PRINCIPLES 3
1.3.1 Thermodynamics 3
1.3.2 Fluid Dynamics 5
1.3.2.A Types of flows 6
1.3.2.B Classification of fluid dynamics 10
1.3.3 Heat Transfer 10
1.3.3.A Conduction 11
1.3.3.B Convection 12
1.3.3.C Radiation 13
1.4 UNITS 14
1.5 REFERENCE BOOKS 15
1.5.1 Thermodynamics 16
1.5.2 Fluid Dynamics 16
1.5.3 Heat Transfer 17
2 THERMODYNAMIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS 19
2.1 CLASSICAL THERMODYNAMICS 19
2.2 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM 19
2.3 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES 21
2.4 THE THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES: PRESSURE, VOLUME, AND TEMPERATURE 21
2.5 CHANGES IN STATE 23
2.6 THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM 23
2. 7 REVERSIBLE PROCESSES 24
2.8 HEAT 25
2.9 WORK 28
2.9.1 Mechanical Work 28
2.9.2 Other Work Modes 31
2.9.3 Irreversible Work 32
3 PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 39
3.1 DEFINITIONS 39
3.2 PHASE EQUILIBRIUM 40
3.2.1 Temperature-Volume Diagrams 41
3.2.2 Quality of a Saturated Liquid-Vapor Mixture 42
3.2.3 Pressure-Temperature Diagram 44
3.2.4 Pressure-Specific Volume Diagram 45
3.2.5 Pressure-Specific Volume-Temperature Surfaces 45
3.3 TABULAR PROPERTIES 47
3.4 THE IDEAL GAS EQUATION OF STATE 51
3.5 OTHER EQUATIONS OF STATE 52
3.6 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF A SIMPLE COMPRESSIBLE SUBSTANCE OTHER THAN P-v-T 53
3.7 PROPERTY RELATIONSHIPS FOR IDEAL GASES 55
3.7.1 The Special Case of a Reversible Adiabatic Process for a Stationary System 57
3.7.2 Polytropic Processes 59
4 SYSTEM ANALYSIS-FIRST AND SECOND LAWS 65
4.1 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 65
4.2 THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 71
4.2.1 Classical Statements of the Second Law 72
4.2.2 Heat Engines and Heat Pumps 73
4.2.3 Externally Reversible Cycles; the Carnot Cycle 76
4.2.4 An Absolute Temperature Scale and the Carnot Efficiency 77
4.2.5 The Clausius Inequality 81
4.2.6 The Property Entropy 82
4.2.7 The Effect of lrreversibilities on Entropy 85
4.2.8 The Principle of the Increase of Entropy 86
4.3 THE T-dS EQUATIONS FOR A SIMPLE COMPRESSIBLE SUBSTANCE 89
4.4 TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAMS 92
4.4.1 Process Efficiency 92
5 CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS 99
5.1 INTRODUCTION 99
5.1.1 Conservation of Mass of a System 100
5.1.2 Conservation of Momentum of a System 101
5.1.3 Conservation of Energy of a System 101
5.1.4 Second Law of Thermodynamics 102
5.2 REYNOLDS TRANSPORT THEORY (RTT) 102
5.2.1 Averaged or Uniform RTT 106
5.3 CONSERVATION OF MASS FOR A CONTROL VOLUME 108
5.4 CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM FOR A CONTROL VOLUME 113
5.4.1 One-Dimensional Linear Momentum Equation 113
5.4.2 Forces Acting on the Control Volume 114
5.4.2.A Contribution of Pressure to the Forces on the Control
Volume 116
5.4.2.B Resultant Force on the Control Volume 117
5.5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY (First Law of Thermodynamics) FOR
A CONTROL VOLUME 122
5.5.1 One-Dimensional Energy Equation 122
5.5.2 Application of Uniform, One-Dimensional Energy Equation 126
5.6 SELECTION OF A CONTROL VOLUME 130
5.7 THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS FOR A CONTROL
VOLUME 140
5.8 ENERGY CONVERSION 144
5.8.1 Energy Conversion by Processes 144
5.8.1.A Nozzles 145
5.8.1.B Turbines and Piston Engines 145
5.8.1.C The Gas Turbine Engine 147
5.8.2 Energy Conversion by Cycles-Heat to Work 149
5.8.3 The Rankine Cycle 150
5.8.3.A Ideal Rankine Cycle Analysis 151
5.8.3.B Regeneration 155
5.8.3.C Reheat 155
5.8.4 Actual Power Cycles 157
5.8.5 Power Absorbing Cycles 157
6 SPECIAL FLOWS AND DIFFERENTIAL FORM OF
CONSERVATION LAWS 165
6.1 INTRODUCTION 165
*6.2 FLOWS WITH NEGLIGIBLE VISCOUS SHEAR STRESSES; EULER'S EQUATION OF MOTION 166
6.2.1 Differential Control Vo lume 166
6.2.2 Equation of Continuity 168
6.2.3 Euler's Equation of Fluid Motion 168
6.3 BERNOULLI'S EQUATION 171
6.3.1 Special Case of the SSSF Energy Equation 173
*6.3.2 Integration of Euler's Equation of Motion 17 4
6.3.3 Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation (Total} Pressures 176
6.4 FLUIDS AT REST 179
6.4.1 Special Case of Bernoulli's Equation 179
*6.4.2 Fluids at Rest or Experiencing a Constant Acceleration 186
*6.5 ISENTROPIC FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS 189
6.5.1 Introduction 189
6.5.2 Speed of Sound 190
6.5.3 lsentropic Stagnation Properties 193
6.5.4 Critical Compressible Flows 195
6.5.5 Effect of Flow Area Variation 195
7 EXTERNAL FLOW-FLUID VISCOUS AND THERMAL EFFECTS 203
7.1 INTRODUCTION 203
7.2 EXTERNAL BOUNDARY LA YEAS 205
7.3 FLOW CHARACTERISTICS OF A BOUNDARY LAYER 208
7.4 RESISTANCE TO MOTION; DRAG ON SURFACES 209
7.4.1 Boundary Layer Momentum Analysis 212
7.4.2 Viscous Drag 213
7.5 THE INFLUENCE OF PRESSURE GRADIENTS 220
7.5.1 Flow Separation 220
7.5.2 Pressure Drag 224
7.6 CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT 235
7.7 FORCED CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER 240
7.7.1 Flat Plate 240
7.7.1.A Uniform Surface Temperature 240
7.7.1.B Uniform Heat Flux 242
7.7.2 Other Objects of Various Shapes 242
7.8 NATURAL CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER 244
7.8.1 Vertical Flat Plate 245
7.8.2 Other Objects of Various Shapes 248
7.9 COMBINED NATURAL AND FORCED CONVECTION 249
8 INTERNAL FLOWS-FLUID VISCOUS AND THERMAL EFFECTS 255
8.1 INTRODUCTION 255
8.2 VISCOUS EFFECTS IN THE ENTRANCE REGION OF A DUCT 257
8.3 ENERGY LOSSES IN INTERNAL FLOWS 258
8.3.1 Major Losses 258
8.3.2 Minor Losses 263
8.4 HEAT TRANSFER IN DUCTS 269
8.4.1 Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient 269
8.4.2 Energy Balance on Fluid Flowing in a Duct 270
8.4.2.A Uniform Wall Heat Flux 271
8.4.2.B Uniform Wall Temperature 271
8.4.3 Entrance Region Effects 274
8.5 LAMINAR FLOW HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS 274
8.5.1 Circular Ducts 275
8.5.2 Noncircular Ducts 279
8.6 TURBULENT FLOW HEAT TRANSFER 279
8.7 HEAT EXCHANGERS 282
8. 7 .1 Classification of Heat Exchangers 283
8. 7.1.A Classification Based upon Application 283
8.7.1.B Classification Based upon Flow Configuration 285
8.7.2 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient 287
8. 7.3 Design and the Prediction of the Performance of Heat Exchangers 291
8.7.3.A First Law Analysis of a Heat Exchanger 292
8.7.3.B NTU-Effectiveness Method 292
9 CONDUCTION HEAT TRANSFER 305
9.1 INTRODUCTION 305
9.2 HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS 307
9.3 STEADY-STATE HEAT CONDUCTION 311
9.3.1 One-Dimensional Steady-State Conduction 311
9.3.2 Two-Dimensional Steady-State Conduction 319
9.3.2.A Electrical Analogy 321
9.3.2.B Shape Factor 322
9.3.2.C Numerical Methods 326
9.4 TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION 332
9.4.1 Lumped Parameter Analysis 333
9.4.2 One-Dimensional Heat Flow 336
9.4.2.A Semi-infinite Solid 337
9.4.2.B Infinite Slab 341
9.4.2.C Infinite Cylinder 347
9.4.2.D Sphere 349
9.4.3 Multidimensional Configurations 349
10 THERMAL RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER 361
10.1 INTRODUCTION 361
10.2 THERMAL RADIATION 362
10.3 BASIC RADIATION PROPERTIES 366
10.3.1 Blackbody 366
10.3.2 Irradiation 366
10.3.3 Absorptivity, Reflectivity, and Transmissivity 367
10.3.4 Emissivity 368
10.3.5 Gray Body 369
10.3.6 Real Body 369
10.3.7 Radiosity 372
10.4 RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER BETWEEN TWO INFINITE PARALLEL SURFACES 374
10.5 SHAPE FACTORS 378
10.6 RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER BETWEEN ANY TWO GRAY SURFACES 383
10.7 RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER IN AN ENCLOSURE 386
APPENDIX 395
ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS 437
INDEX 441