Introduction to the human body

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
About the Authors
Preface
Acknowledgments
Brief Contents
Contents
1 ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY
	1.1 Anatomy and Physiology Defined
	1.2 Levels of Organization and Body Systems
	1.3 Life Processes
	1.4 Homeostasis: Maintaining Limits
		Control of Homeostasis: Feedback Systems
			Negative Feedback Systems
			Positive Feedback Systems
		Homeostasis and Disease
	1.5 Aging and Homeostasis
	1.6 Anatomical Terms
		Names of Body Regions
		Directional Terms
		Planes and Sections
	1.7 Body Cavities
		Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants
	Medical Terminology and Conditions
	Chapter Review and Resource Summary
	Critical Thinking Applications
	Answers to Figure Questions
2 INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY
	2.1 Introduction to Chemistry
		Chemical Elements and Atoms
		Ions, Molecules, and Compounds
		Chemical Bonds
			Ionic Bonds
			Covalent Bonds
			Hydrogen Bonds
		Chemical Reactions
			Forms of Energy and Chemical Reactions
			Synthesis Reactions
			Decomposition Reactions
			Exchange Reactions
			Reversible Reactions
	2.2 Chemical Compounds and Life Processes
		Inorganic Compounds
			Water
			Inorganic Acids, Bases, and Salts
			Acid-Base Balance: The Concept of pH
			Maintaining pH: Buffer Systems
		Organic Compounds
			Carbohydrates
			Lipids
			Proteins
			Enzymes
			Nucleic Acids: Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
			Adenosine Triphosphate
	Chapter Review and Resource Summary
	Critical Thinking Applications
	Answers to Figure Questions
3 CELLS
	3.1 A Generalized View of the Cell
	3.2 The Plasma Membrane
	3.3 Transport Across the Plasma Membrane
		Passive Processes
			Diffusion: The Principle
			Osmosis
		Active Processes
			Active Transport
			Transport in Vesicles
	3.4 Cytoplasm
		Cytosol
		Organelles
			Centrosome
			Cilia and Flagella
			Ribosomes
			Endoplasmic Reticulum
			Golgi Complex
			Lysosomes
			Peroxisomes
			Proteasomes
			Mitochondria
	3.5 Nucleus
	3.6 Gene Action: Protein Synthesis
		Transcription
		Translation
	3.7 Somatic Cell Division
		Interphase
		Mitotic Phase
			Nuclear Division: Mitosis
			Cytoplasmic Division: Cytokinesis
	3.8 Cellular Diversity
	3.9 Aging and Cells
	Common Disorders
	Medical Terminology and Conditions
	Chapter Review and Resource Summary
	Critical Thinking Applications
	Answers to Figure Questions
4 TISSUES
	4.1 Types of Tissues
	4.2 Epithelial Tissue
		General Features of Epithelial Tissue
		Classification of Epithelial Tissues
		Glandular Epithelium
	4.3 Connective Tissue
		General Features of Connective Tissue
		Connective Tissue Cells
		Connective Tissue Extracellular Matrix
			Ground Substance
			Fibers
		Classification of Connective Tissues
			Loose Connective Tissue
			Dense Connective Tissue
			Cartilage
			Bone Tissue
			Liquid Connective Tissue
	4.4 Membranes
		Mucous Membranes
		Serous Membranes
		Synovial Membranes
	4.5 Muscular Tissue
	4.6 Nervous Tissue
	4.7 Tissue Repair: Restoring Homeostasis
	4.8 Aging and Tissues
	Common Disorders
	Medical Terminology and Conditions
	Chapter Review and Resource Summary
	Critical Thinking Applications
	Answers to Figure Questions
5 THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
	5.1 Skin
		Structure of Skin
		Epidermis
		Dermis
		Skin Color
		Tattooing and Body Piercing
	5.2 Accessory Structures of the Skin
		Hair
		Glands
			Sebaceous Glands
			Sudoriferous Glands
			Ceruminous Glands
		Nails
	5.3 Functions of the Skin
	5.4 Aging and the Integumentary System
	Common Disorders
	Medical Terminology and Conditions
	Chapter Review and Resource Summary
	Critical Thinking Applications
	Answers to Figure Questions
6 THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
	6.1 Functions of Bone and the Skeletal System
	6.2 Types of Bones
	6.3 Structure of Bone
		Macroscopic Structure of Bone
		Microscopic Structure of Bone
			Compact Bone Tissue
			Spongy Bone Tissue
	6.4 Bone Formation
		Initial Bone Formation in an Embryo and Fetus
			Intramembranous Ossification
			Endochondral Ossification
		Bone Growth in Length and Thickness
			Growth in Length
			Growth in Thickness
		Bone Remodeling
		Fractures
		Factors Affecting Bone Growth and Remodeling
		Bone's Role in Calcium Homeostasis
	6.5 Exercise and Bone Tissue
	6.6 Divisions of the Skeletal System
	6.7 Skull and Hyoid Bone
		Unique Features of the Skull
			Sutures
			Paranasal Sinuses
			Fontanels
		Hyoid Bone
	6.8 Vertebral Column
		Regions of the Vertebral Column
		Normal Curves of the Vertebral Column
		Vertebrae
	6.9 Thorax
		Sternum
		Ribs
	6.10 Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle
		Clavicle
		Scapula
	6.11 Upper Limb
	6.12 Pelvic (Hip) Girdle
	6.13 Lower Limb
	6.14 Comparison of Female and Male Skeletons
	6.15 Aging and the Skeletal System
	Common Disorders
	Medical Terminology and Conditions
	Chapter Review and Resource Summary
	Critical Thinking Applications
	Answers to Figure Questions
7 JOINTS
	7.1 Classification of Joints
	7.2 Fibrous Joints
	7.3 Cartilaginous Joints
	7.4 Synovial Joints
		Structure of Synovial Joints
	7.5 Types of Movements at Synovial Joints
		Gliding
		Angular Movements
		Rotation
		Special Movements
	7.6 Types of Synovial Joints
	7.7 Aging and Joints
	Common Disorders
	Medical Terminology and Conditions
	Chapter Review and Resource Summary
	Critical Thinking Applications
	Answers to Figure Questions
8 THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
	8.1 Overview of Muscular Tissue
		Types of Muscular Tissue
		Functions of Muscular Tissue
	8.2 Skeletal Muscle Tissue
		Connective Tissue Components
		Nerve and Blood Supply
		Histology
	8.3 Contraction and Relaxation of Skeletal Muscle
		Neuromuscular Junction
		Sliding-filament Mechanism
		Physiology of Contraction
		Relaxation
		Muscle Tone
	8.4 Metabolism of Skeletal Muscle Tissue
		Energy for Contraction
		Muscle Fatigue
		Oxygen Consumption After Exercise
	8.5 Control of Muscle Tension
		Twitch Contraction
		Frequency of Stimulation
		Motor Unit Recruitment
		Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers
	8.6 Exercise and Skeletal Muscle Tissue
	8.7 Cardiac Muscle Tissue
	8.8 Smooth Muscle Tissue
	8.9 Aging and Muscular Tissue
	8.10 How Skeletal Muscles Produce Movement
		Origin and Insertion
		Group Actions
	8.11 Principal Skeletal Muscles
	Common Disorders
	Medical Terminology and Conditions
	Chapter Review and Resource Summary
	Critical Thinking Applications
	Answers to Figure Questions
9 NERVOUS TISSUE
	9.1 Overview of the Nervous System
		Organization of the Nervous System
			Central Nervous System
			Peripheral Nervous System
		Functions of the Nervous System
	9.2 Histology of Nervous Tissue
		Neurons
			Parts of a Neuron
			Classification of Neurons
		Neuroglia
		Myelination
		Collections of Nervous Tissue
			Clusters of Neuronal Cell Bodies
			Bundles of Axons
			Gray and White Matter
	9.3 Action Potentials
		Ion Channels
		Resting Membrane Potential
		Generation of Action Potentials
		Conduction of Nerve Impulses
	9.4 Synaptic Transmission
		Events at a Chemical Synapse
		Neurotransmitters
	Common Disorders
	Medical Terminology and Conditions
	Chapter Review and Resource Summary
	Critical Thinking Applications
	Answers to Figure Questions
10 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM, SPINAL NERVES, AND CRANIAL NERVES
	10.1 Spinal Cord Structure
		Protection and Coverings: Vertebral Canal and Meninges
		Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord
		Internal Structure of the Spinal Cord
	10.2 Spinal Nerves
		Spinal Nerve Coverings
		Distribution of Spinal Nerves
			Plexuses
			Intercostal Nerves
	10.3 Spinal Cord Functions
	10.4 Brain
		Major Parts and Protective Coverings
		Brain Blood Supply and the BloodÐBrain Barrier
		Cerebrospinal Fluid
		Brain Stem
			Medulla Oblongata
			Pons
			Midbrain
			Reticular Formation
		Diencephalon
			Thalamus
			Hypothalamus
			Pineal Gland
		Cerebellum
		Cerebrum
			Limbic System
			Functional Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
			Somatic Sensory and Somatic Motor Pathways
			Hemispheric Lateralization
			Memory
			Electroencephalogram (EEG)
	10.5 Cranial Nerves
	10.6 Aging and the Nervous System
		Common Disorders
		Medical Terminology and Conditions
		Chapter Review and Resource Summary
		Critical Thinking Applications
		Answers to Figure Questions
11 AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
	11.1 Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems
	11.2 Structure of the Autonomic Nervous System
		Anatomical Components
		Organization of the Sympathetic Division
		Organization of the Parasympathetic Division
	11.3 Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
		ANS Neurotransmitters
		Activities of the ANS
			Sympathetic Activities
			Parasympathetic Activities
	Common Disorders
	Chapter Review and Resource Summary
	Critical Thinking Applications
	Answers to Figure Questions
12 SOMATIC SENSES AND SPECIAL SENSES
	12.1 Overview of Sensations
		Definition of Sensation
		Characteristics of Sensations
		Types of Sensory Receptors
	12.2 Somatic Senses
		Tactile Sensations
			Touch
			Pressure
			Vibration
			Itch and Tickle
		Thermal Sensations
		Pain Sensations
		Proprioceptive Sensations
	12.3 Special Senses
	12.4 Olfaction: Sense of Smell
		Structure of the Olfactory Epithelium
		Stimulation of Olfactory Receptors
		The Olfactory Pathway
	12.5 Gustation: Sense of Taste
		Structure of Taste Buds
		Stimulation of Gustatory Receptors
		The Gustatory Pathway
	12.6 Vision
		Accessory Structures of the Eye
		Layers of the Eyeball
		Fibrous Tunic
			Vascular Tunic
			Retina
		Interior of the Eyeball
		Image Formation and Binocular Vision
			Refraction of Light Rays
			Accommodation
			Constriction of the Pupil
			Convergence
		Stimulation of Photoreceptors
		The Visual Pathway
	12.7 Hearing and Equilibrium
		Structure of the Ear
		External (Outer) Ear
			Middle Ear
			Internal (Inner) Ear
		Physiology of Hearing
		Auditory Pathway
		Physiology of Equilibrium
			Static Equilibrium
			Dynamic Equilibrium
		Equilibrium Pathways
	Common Disorders
	Medical Terminology and Conditions
	Chapter Review and Resource Summary
	Critical Thinking Applications
	Answers to Figure Questions
13 THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Hormone Action
		Target Cells and Hormone Receptors
		Chemistry of Hormones
		Mechanisms of Hormone Action
			Action of Lipid-soluble Hormones
			Action of Water-soluble Hormones
		Control of Hormone Secretions
	13.3 Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
		Anterior Pituitary Hormones
			Human Growth Hormone and Insulinlike Growth Factors
			Thyroid-stimulating Hormone
			Follicle-stimulating Hormone and Luteinizing Hormone
			Prolactin
			Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
			Melanocyte-stimulating Hormone
		Posterior Pituitary Hormones
			Oxytocin
			Antidiuretic Hormone
	13.4 Thyroid Gland
		Actions of Thyroid Hormones
		Control of Thyroid Hormone Secretion
		Calcitonin
	13.5 Parathyroid Glands
	13.6 Pancreatic Islets
		Actions of Glucagon and Insulin
	13.7 Adrenal Glands
		Adrenal Cortex Hormones
			Mineralocorticoids
			Glucocorticoids
			Androgens
		Adrenal Medulla Hormones
	13.8 Ovaries and Testes
	13.9 Pineal Gland
	13.10 Other Hormones
		Hormones from Other Endocrine Tissues and Organs
		Prostaglandins and Leukotrienes
	13.11 The Stress Response
	13.12 Aging and the Endocrine System
	Common Disorders
	Medical Terminology and Conditions
	Chapter Review and Resource Summary
	Answers to Figure Questions
14 THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: BLOOD
	14.1 Functions of Blood
	14.2 Components of Whole Blood
		Blood Plasma
		Formed Elements
		Formation of Blood Cells
			Red Blood Cells
			RBC Life Cycle
			White Blood Cells
			Platelets
	14.3 Hemostasis
		Vascular Spasm
		Platelet Plug Formation
		Blood Clotting
			Blood Clot Retraction and Blood Vessel Repair
		Hemostatic Control Mechanisms
		Clotting in Blood Vessels
	14.4 Blood Groups and Blood Types
		ABO Blood Group
		Rh Blood Group
		Transfusions
		Typing and Cross-matching Blood for Transfusion
	Common Disorders
	Medical Terminology and Conditions
	Chapter Review and Resource Summary
	Critical Thinking Applications
	Answers to Figure Questions
15 THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: HEART
	15.1 Structure and Organization of the Heart
		Location and Coverings of the Heart
		Heart Wall
		Chambers of the Heart
		Great Vessels of the Heart
		Valves of the Heart
	15.2 Blood Flow and Blood Supply of the Heart
		Blood Flow Through the Heart
		Blood Supply of the Heart
	15.3 Conduction System of the Heart
	15.4 Electrocardiogram
	15.5 The Cardiac Cycle
		Heart Sounds
	15.6 Cardiac Output
		Regulation of Stroke Volume
		Regulation of Heart Rate
			Autonomic Regulation of Heart Rate
			Chemical Regulation of Heart Rate
			Other Factors in Heart Rate Regulation
	15.7 Exercise and the Heart
	Common Disorders
	Medical Terminology and Conditions
	Chapter Review and Resource Summary
	Critical Thinking Applications
	Answers to Figure Questions
16 THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: BLOOD VESSELS AND CIRCULATION
	16.1 Blood Vessel Structure and Function
		Arteries and Arterioles
		Capillaries
			Structure of Capillaries
			Capillary Exchange
		Venules and Veins
			Structure of Venules and Veins
	16.2 Blood Flow Through Blood Vessels
		Blood Pressure
		Resistance
		Venous Return
		Regulation of Blood Pressure and Blood Flow
			Role of the Cardiovascular Center
			Hormonal Regulation of Blood Pressure and Blood Flow
	16.3 Circulatory Routes
		Systemic Circulation
		Pulmonary Circulation
		Hepatic Portal Circulation
		Fetal Circulation
	16.4 Checking Circulation
		Pulse
		Measurement of Blood Pressure
	16.5 Aging and the Cardiovascular System
	Common Disorders
	Medical Terminology and Conditions
	Chapter Review and Resource Summary
	Critical Thinking Applications
	Answers to Figure Questions
17 THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY
	17.1 Lymphatic System
		Lymphatic Vessels and Lymph Circulation
		Lymphatic Organs and Tissues
			Thymus
			Lymph Nodes
			Spleen
			Lymphatic Nodules
	17.2 Innate Immunity
		First Line of Defense: Skin and Mucous Membranes
		Second Line of Defense: Internal Defenses
			Antimicrobial Substances
			Phagocytes and Natural Killer Cells
			Inflammation
			Fever
	17.3 Adaptive Immunity
		Maturation of T Cells and B Cells
		Types of Adaptive Immunity
		Clonal Selection: The Principle
		Antigens and Antibodies
		Processing and Presenting Antigens
		T Cells and Cell-mediated Immunity
			Elimination of Invaders
		B Cells and Antibody-mediated Immunity
		Immunological Memory
			Primary and Secondary Responses
			Naturally Acquired Immunity and Artificially Acquired Immunity
	17.4 Aging and the Immune System
		Common Disorders
		Medical Terminology and Conditions
		Chapter Review and Resource Summary
		Critical Thinking Applications
		Answers to Figure Questions
18 THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
	18.1 Organs of the Respiratory System
		Nose
		Pharynx
		Larynx
		The Structures of Voice Production
		Trachea
		Bronchi and Bronchioles
		Lungs
			Alveoli
	18.2 Pulmonary Ventilation
		Muscles of Inhalation and Exhalation
		Pressure Changes During Breathing
		Lung Volumes and Capacities
		Breathing Patterns and Modified Breathing Movements
	18.3 Exchange of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
		External Respiration: Pulmonary Gas Exchange
		Internal Respiration: Systemic Gas Exchange
	18.4 Transport of Respiratory Gases
		Oxygen Transport
		Carbon Dioxide Transport
	18.5 Control of Breathing
		Respiratory Center
		Medullary Respiratory Center
			Pontine Respiratory Group
		Regulation of the Respiratory Center
			Cortical Influences on Breathing
			Chemoreceptor Regulation of Breathing
			Other Influences on Breathing
	18.6 Exercise and the Respiratory System
	18.7 Aging and the Respiratory System
	Common Disorders
	Medical Terminology and Conditions
	Chapter Review and Resource Summary
	Critical Thinking Applications
	Answers to Figure Questions
19 THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
	19.1 Overview of the Digestive System
	19.2 Layers of the GI Tract and the Omentum
	19.3 Mouth
		Tongue
		Salivary Glands
		Teeth
		Digestion in the Mouth
	19.4 Pharynx and Esophagus
	19.5 Stomach
		Structure of the Stomach
		Digestion and Absorption in the Stomach
	19.6 Pancreas
		Structure of the Pancreas
		Pancreatic Juice
	19.7 Liver and Gallbladder
		Structure of the Liver and Gallbladder
		Bile
		Functions of the Liver
	19.8 Small Intestine
		Structure of the Small Intestine
		Intestinal Juice
		Mechanical Digestion in the Small Intestine
		Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine
		Absorption in the Small Intestine
			Absorption of Monosaccharides
			Absorption of Amino Acids
			Absorption of Ions and Water
			Absorption of Lipids and Bile Salts
			Absorption of Vitamins
	19.9 Large Intestine
		Structure of the Large Intestine
		Digestion and Absorption in the Large Intestine
		The Defecation Reflex
	19.10 Phases of Digestion
		Cephalic Phase
		Gastric Phase
		Intestinal Phase
	19.11 Aging and the Digestive System
	Common Disorders
	Medical Terminology and Conditions
	Chapter Review and Resource Summary
	Critical Thinking Applications
	Answers to Figure Questions
20 NUTRITION AND METABOLISM
	20.1 Nutrients
		Guidelines for Healthy Living
		Minerals
		Vitamins
	20.2 Metabolism
		Carbohydrate Metabolism
			Glucose Catabolism
			Glucose Anabolism
		Lipid Metabolism
			Lipid Catabolism
			Lipid Anabolism
			Lipid Transport in Blood
		Protein Metabolism
			Protein Catabolism
			Protein Anabolism
	20.3 Metabolism and Body Heat
		Measuring Heat
		Body Temperature Homeostasis
			Body Heat Production
			Body Heat Loss
		Regulation of Body Temperature
	Common Disorders
	Medical Terminology and Conditions
	Chapter Review and Resource Summary
	Critical Thinking Applications
	Answers to Figure Questions
21 THE URINARY SYSTEM
	21.1 Overview of the Urinary System
	21.2 Structure of the Kidneys
		External Anatomy of the Kidneys
		Internal Anatomy of the Kidneys
		Renal Blood Supply
		Nephrons
	21.3 Functions of the Nephron
		Glomerular Filtration
			Net Filtration Pressure
			Glomerular Filtration Rate
		Tubular Reabsorption
		Tubular Secretion
		Hormonal Regulation of Nephron Functions
		Components of Urine
	21.4 Transportation, Storage, and Elimination of Urine
		Ureters
		Urinary Bladder
		Urethra
		Micturition
	21.5 Aging and the Urinary System
	Common Disorders
	Medical Terminology and Conditions
	Chapter Review and Resource Summary
	Critical Thinking Applications
	Answers to Figure Questions
22 FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID-BASE BALANCE
	22.1 Fluid Compartments and Fluid Balance
		Sources of Body Water Gain and Loss
		Regulation of Body Water Gain
		Regulation of Water and Solute Loss
		Movement of Water Between Fluid Compartments
	22.2 Electrolytes in Body Fluids
	22.3 Acid-Base Balance
		The Actions of Buffer Systems
			Protein Buffer System
			Carbonic AcidÐBicarbonate Buffer System
		Phosphate Buffer System
		Exhalation of Carbon Dioxide
		Kidney Excretion of H+
		Acid-Base Imbalances
	22.4 Aging and Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance
	Chapter Review and Resource Summary
	Critical Thinking Applications
	Answers to Figure Questions
23 THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
	23.1 Male Reproductive System
		Scrotum
		Testes
			Spermatogenesis
			Sperm
			Hormonal Control of the Testes
		Ducts of the Male Reproductive System
			Epididymis
			Ductus Deferens
			Ejaculatory Ducts
		Urethra
		Accessory Sex Glands
		Semen
		Penis
	23.2 Female Reproductive System
		Ovaries
			Oogenesis
		Uterine Tubes
		Uterus
		Vagina
		Perineum and Vulva
		Mammary Glands
	23.3 The Female Reproductive Cycle
		Hormonal Regulation of the Female Reproductive Cycle
		Phases of the Female Reproductive Cycle
			Menstrual Phase
			Preovulatory Phase
			Ovulation
			Postovulatory Phase
	23.4 Birth Control Methods and Abortion
		Birth Control Methods
			Surgical Sterilization
			Non-Incisional Sterilization
			Hormonal Methods
			Intrauterine Devices
			Spermicides
			Barrier Methods
			Periodic Abstinence
		Abortion
	23.5 Aging and the Reproductive Systems
	Common Disorders
	Medical Terminology and Conditions
	Chapter Review and Resource Summary
	Critical Thinking Applications
	Answers to Figure Questions
24 DEVELOPMENT AND INHERITANCE
	24.1 Embryonic Period
		First Week of Development
			Fertilization
			Early Embryonic Development
		Second Week of Development
		Third Week of Development
			Gastrulation
			Development of the Allantois, Chorionic Villi, and Placenta
		Fourth Through Eighth Weeks of Development
	24.2 Fetal Period
	24.3 Maternal Changes During Pregnancy
		Hormones of Pregnancy
		Changes During Pregnancy
	24.4 Exercise and Pregnancy
	24.5 Labor and Delivery
	24.6 Lactation
	24.7 Inheritance
		Genotype and Phenotype
		Autosomes and Sex Chromosomes
	Common Disorders
	Medical Terminology and Conditions
	Chapter Review and Resource Summary
	Critical Thinking Applications
	Answers to Figure Questions
ANSWERS
GLOSSARY
CREDITS
INDEX
Eponyms Used in This Text
Combining Forms, Word Roots, Prefixes, and Suffixes
EULA