Introduction to the Human Body

Cover Page......Page 1
Title Page......Page 3
Copyright Page......Page 4
ABOUT THE AUTHORS......Page 5
PREFACE......Page 7
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 11
NOTE TO THE STUDENT......Page 12
BRIEF CONTENTS......Page 17
CONTENTS......Page 18
chapter 1 ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY......Page 27
Levels of Organization and Body Systems......Page 28
Homeostasis: Maintaining Limits......Page 32
Control of Homeostasis: Feedback Systems......Page 33
Homeostasis and Disease......Page 34
Names of Body Regions......Page 35
Directional Terms......Page 36
Planes and Sections......Page 40
Body Cavities......Page 41
Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants......Page 43
Study Outline......Page 44
Self-Quiz......Page 45
Answers to Figure Questions......Page 47
chapter 2 INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY......Page 48
Chemical Elements and Atoms......Page 49
Chemical Bonds......Page 51
Chemical Reactions......Page 54
Inorganic Compounds......Page 55
Organic Compounds......Page 58
Focus on Wellness:Herbal Supplements—They’re Natural but Are They Safe?......Page 63
Adenosine Triphosphate......Page 64
Study Outline......Page 66
Self-Quiz......Page 67
Answers to Figure Questions......Page 69
chapter 3 CELLS......Page 70
A Generalized View of the Cell......Page 71
The Plasma Membrane......Page 72
Passive Processes......Page 73
Active Processes......Page 76
Organelles......Page 78
Nucleus......Page 84
Transcription......Page 86
Translation......Page 87
Mitotic Phase......Page 89
Aging and Cells......Page 91
Focus on Wellness: Phytochemicals—Protecting Cellular Function......Page 92
Common Disorders......Page 93
Study Outline......Page 94
Self-Quiz......Page 96
Answers to Figure Questions......Page 98
chapter 4 TISSUES......Page 99
Covering and Lining Epithelium......Page 100
General Features of Connective Tissue......Page 109
Connective Tissue Extracellular Matrix......Page 110
Classification of Connective Tissues......Page 111
Membranes......Page 117
Mucous Membranes......Page 118
Tissue Repair: Restoring Homeostasis......Page 119
Focus on Wellness: Excess Adiposity—Too Much of a Good Thing......Page 120
Common Disorders......Page 121
Study Outline......Page 122
Self-Quiz......Page 124
Answers to Figure Questions......Page 125
chapter 5 THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM......Page 126
Structure of Skin......Page 127
Epidermis......Page 128
Skin Color......Page 129
Tattooing and Body Piercing......Page 130
Hair......Page 131
Glands......Page 132
Nails......Page 133
Functions of the Skin......Page 134
Aging and the Integumentary System......Page 135
Common Disorders......Page 136
Focus on Homeostasis: The Integumentary System......Page 137
Medical Terminology and Conditions......Page 140
Study Outline......Page 141
Self-Quiz......Page 142
Answers to Figure Questions......Page 143
chapter 6 THE SKELETAL SYSTEM......Page 144
Macroscopic Structure of Bone......Page 145
Microscopic Structure of Bone......Page 147
Initial Bone Formation in an Embryo and Fetus......Page 149
Bone Remodeling......Page 152
Bone’s Role in Calcium Homeostasis......Page 153
Exercise and Bone Tissue......Page 154
Divisions of the Skeletal System......Page 155
Skull and Hyoid Bone......Page 157
Cranial Bones......Page 159
Facial Bones......Page 162
Unique Features of the Skull......Page 163
Regions of the Vertebral Column......Page 165
Normal Curves of the Vertebral Column......Page 166
Vertebrae......Page 167
Ribs......Page 170
Scapula......Page 171
Humerus......Page 172
Ulna and Radius......Page 173
Carpals, Metacarpals, and Phalanges......Page 174
Pelvic (Hip) Girdle......Page 175
Femur......Page 177
Tibia and Fibula......Page 178
Tarsals, Metatarsals, and Phalanges......Page 179
Aging and the Skeletal System......Page 181
Focus on Wellness: Steps to Healthy Feet......Page 182
Focus on Homeostasis: The Skeletal System......Page 183
Common Disorders......Page 184
Medical Terminology and Conditions......Page 185
Study Outline......Page 186
Self-Quiz......Page 187
Critical Thinking Applications......Page 188
Answers to Figure Questions......Page 189
chapter 7 JOINTS......Page 190
Fibrous Joints......Page 191
Structure of Synovial Joints......Page 193
Angular Movements......Page 195
Rotation......Page 197
Types of Synovial Joints......Page 198
Details of a Synovial Joint: The Knee Joint......Page 201
Aging and Joints......Page 204
Common Disorders......Page 205
Medical Terminology and Conditions......Page 206
Study Outline......Page 207
Self-Quiz......Page 208
Answers to Figure Questions......Page 209
chapter 8 THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM......Page 210
Connective Tissue Components......Page 211
Histology......Page 212
Neuromuscular Junction......Page 215
Physiology of Contraction......Page 217
Muscle Tone......Page 218
Oxygen Consumption After Exercise......Page 220
Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers......Page 222
Smooth Muscle Tissue......Page 224
How Skeletal Muscles Produce Movement......Page 226
Group Actions......Page 227
Principal Skeletal Muscles......Page 228
Focus on Homeostasis: The Muscular System......Page 256
Common Disorders......Page 257
Study Outline......Page 258
Self-Quiz......Page 260
Answers to Figure Questions......Page 262
chapter 9 NERVOUS TISSUE......Page 263
Structures of the Nervous System......Page 264
Neurons......Page 265
Neuroglia......Page 267
Central Nervous System......Page 269
Peripheral Nervous System......Page 270
Resting Membrane Potential......Page 271
Conduction of Nerve Impulses......Page 272
Events at a Synapse......Page 274
Neurotransmitters......Page 275
Focus on Wellness Neurotransmitters—Why Food Affects Mood......Page 276
Study Outline......Page 277
Self-Quiz......Page 279
Answers to Figure Questions......Page 280
chapter 10 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM, SPINAL NERVES, AND CRANIAL NERVES......Page 281
Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord......Page 282
Internal Structure of the Spinal Cord......Page 284
Distribution of Spinal Nerves......Page 285
Spinal Cord Functions......Page 286
Major Parts and Protective Coverings......Page 287
Brain Stem......Page 289
Diencephalon......Page 293
Cerebrum......Page 294
Focus on Wellness Coffee Nerves—The Health Risks of Caffeine......Page 296
Aging and the Nervous System......Page 302
Common Disorders......Page 304
Medical Terminology and Conditions......Page 305
Study Outline......Page 306
Self-Quiz......Page 307
Critical Thinking Applications......Page 308
Answers to Figure Questions......Page 309
chapter 11 AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM......Page 310
Anatomical Components......Page 311
Organization of the Parasympathetic Division......Page 313
Activities of the ANS......Page 316
Focus on Wellness Mind–Body Exercise—An Antidote to Stress......Page 317
Study Outline......Page 319
Self-Quiz......Page 320
Answers to Figure Questions......Page 322
chapter 12 SOMATIC SENSES AND SPECIAL SENSES......Page 323
Types of Sensory Receptors......Page 324
Somatic Senses......Page 325
Pain Sensations......Page 326
Proprioceptive Sensations......Page 328
The Olfactory Pathway......Page 329
Gustation: Sense of Taste......Page 330
Structure of Taste Buds......Page 331
Accessory Structures of the Eye......Page 332
Layers of the Eyeball......Page 333
Image Formation and Binocular Vision......Page 336
The Visual Pathway......Page 339
Structure of the Ear......Page 340
Physiology of Hearing......Page 343
Physiology of Equilibrium......Page 344
Equilibrium Pathways......Page 345
Focus on Homeostasis: The Nervous System......Page 348
Medical Terminology and Conditions......Page 349
Study Outline......Page 350
Self-Quiz......Page 351
Answers to Figure Questions......Page 353
chapter 13 THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM......Page 354
Introduction......Page 355
Mechanisms of Hormone Action......Page 356
Control of Hormone Secretions......Page 357
Anterior Pituitary Hormones......Page 358
Posterior Pituitary Hormones......Page 360
Actions of Thyroid Hormones......Page 362
Control of Thyroid Hormone Secretion......Page 363
Parathyroid Glands......Page 364
Actions of Glucagon and Insulin......Page 366
Adrenal Cortex Hormones......Page 368
Adrenal Medulla Hormones......Page 370
Ovaries and Testes......Page 371
Hormones from Other Endocrine Tissues and Organs......Page 372
The Stress Response......Page 373
Aging and the Endocrine System......Page 374
Focus on Homeostasis: The Endocrine System......Page 375
Common Disorders......Page 376
Study Outline......Page 378
Self-Quiz......Page 380
Critical Thinking Applications......Page 381
Answers to Figure Questions......Page 382
chapter 14 THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: BLOOD......Page 383
Formed Elements......Page 384
Hemostasis......Page 392
Blood Clotting......Page 393
Clotting in Blood Vessels......Page 394
Transfusions......Page 395
Typing and Cross-Matching Blood for Transfusion......Page 396
Focus on Wellness Lifestyle and Blood Circulation—Let It Flow......Page 397
Common Disorders......Page 398
Study Outline......Page 399
Self-Quiz......Page 400
Answers to Figure Questions......Page 402
chapter 15 THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: HEART......Page 403
Location and Coverings of the Heart......Page 404
Heart Wall......Page 405
Chambers of the Heart......Page 406
Great Vessels of the Heart......Page 407
Valves of the Heart......Page 408
Blood Flow Through the Heart......Page 410
Conduction System of the Heart......Page 411
Electrocardiogram......Page 412
The Cardiac Cycle......Page 413
Regulation of Stroke Volume......Page 414
Focus on Wellness Sudden Cardiac Death During Exercise —What’s the Risk?......Page 415
Regulation of Heart Rate......Page 416
Exercise and the Heart......Page 417
Common Disorders......Page 418
Study Outline......Page 420
Self-Quiz......Page 421
Answers to Figure Questions......Page 423
chapter 16 THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: BLOOD VESSELS AND CIRCULATION......Page 424
Capillaries......Page 425
Venules and Veins......Page 427
Blood Pressure......Page 429
Regulation of Blood Pressure and Blood Flow......Page 430
Systemic Circulation......Page 432
Hepatic Portal Circulation......Page 447
Fetal Circulation......Page 449
Measurement of Blood Pressure......Page 450
Aging and the Cardiovascular System......Page 451
Focus on Homeostasis: The Cardiovascular System......Page 452
Medical Terminology and Conditions......Page 453
Study Outline......Page 454
Self-Quiz......Page 455
Answers to Figure Questions......Page 457
chapter 17 THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM ANDIMMUNITY......Page 458
Lymphatic Vessels and Lymph Circulation......Page 459
Lymphatic Organs and Tissues......Page 462
First Line of Defense: Skin and Mucous Membranes......Page 463
Second Line of Defense: Internal Defenses......Page 464
Adaptive Immunity......Page 466
Maturation of T Cells and B Cells......Page 467
Antigens and Antibodies......Page 468
Processing and Presenting Antigens......Page 469
T Cells and Cell-mediated Immunity......Page 471
B Cells and Antibody-Mediated Immunity......Page 474
Immunological Memory......Page 476
Aging and the Immune System......Page 477
Focus on Homeostasis: The Lymphatic System and Immunity......Page 478
Common Disorders......Page 479
Study Outline......Page 481
Self-Quiz......Page 483
Answers to Figure Questions......Page 484
chapter 18 THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM......Page 485
Organs of the Respiratory System......Page 486
Nose......Page 487
The Structures of Voice Production......Page 488
Trachea......Page 489
Lungs......Page 491
Muscles of Inhalation and Exhalation......Page 493
Pressure Changes During Ventilation......Page 495
Lung Volumes and Capacities......Page 496
Exchange of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide......Page 497
Oxygen Transport......Page 498
Control of Respiration......Page 501
Regulation of the Respiratory Center......Page 502
Focus on Wellness Smoking—A Breathtaking Experience......Page 503
Aging and the Respiratory System......Page 505
Focus on Homeostasis: The Respiratory System......Page 506
Common Disorders......Page 507
Study Outline......Page 508
Self-Quiz......Page 509
Answers to Figure Questions......Page 511
chapter 19 THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM......Page 512
Layers of the GI Tract and the Omentum......Page 513
Mouth......Page 516
Salivary Glands......Page 517
Pharynx and Esophagus......Page 518
Structure of the Stomach......Page 521
Digestion and Absorption in the Stomach......Page 523
Structure of the Pancreas......Page 524
Bile......Page 525
Functions of the Liver......Page 526
Structure of the Small Intestine......Page 527
Absorption in the Small Intestine......Page 530
Structure of the Large Intestine......Page 532
Cephalic Phase......Page 534
Intestinal Phase......Page 535
Aging and the Digestive System......Page 536
Focus on Homeostasis: The Digestive System......Page 537
Common Disorders......Page 538
Study Outline......Page 539
Self-Quiz......Page 541
Critical Thinking Applications......Page 542
Answers to Figure Questions......Page 543
chapter 20 NUTRITION AND METABOLISM......Page 544
Minerals......Page 545
Vitamins......Page 546
Carbohydrate Metabolism......Page 550
Lipid Metabolism......Page 553
Protein Metabolism......Page 554
Body Temperature Homeostasis......Page 556
Regulation of Body Temperature......Page 557
Common Disorders......Page 559
Study Outline......Page 560
Self-Quiz......Page 562
Answers to Figure Questions......Page 563
chapter 21 THE URINARY SYSTEM......Page 564
Overview of the Urinary System......Page 565
External Anatomy of the Kidneys......Page 566
Renal Blood Supply......Page 567
Nephrons......Page 568
Functions of the Nephron......Page 569
Glomerular Filtration......Page 570
Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion......Page 572
Components of Urine......Page 574
Ureters......Page 575
Urinary Bladder......Page 576
Micturition......Page 577
Aging and the Urinary System......Page 578
Focus on Homeostasis: The Urinary System......Page 579
Medical Terminology and Conditions......Page 580
Study Outline......Page 581
Self-Quiz......Page 582
Answers to Figure Questions......Page 583
chapter 22 FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID–BASE BALANCE......Page 584
Fluid Compartments and Fluid Balance......Page 585
Regulation of Water and Solute Loss......Page 586
Movement of Water Between Fluid Compartments......Page 588
Electrolytes in Body Fluids......Page 589
The Actions of Buffer Systems......Page 591
Exhalation of Carbon Dioxide......Page 592
Acid–Base Imbalances......Page 593
Study Outline......Page 594
Self-Quiz......Page 595
Answers to Figure Questions......Page 596
chapter 23 THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS......Page 597
Scrotum......Page 598
Testes......Page 599
Accessory Sex Glands......Page 603
Penis......Page 604
Ovaries......Page 605
Uterus......Page 607
Perineum and Vulva......Page 609
Mammary Glands......Page 610
Hormonal Regulation of the Female Reproductive Cycle......Page 611
Phases of the Female Reproductive Cycle......Page 613
Hormonal Methods......Page 615
Periodic Abstinence......Page 616
Abortion......Page 617
Common Disorders......Page 618
Focus on Homeostasis: The Reproductive Systems......Page 619
Medical Terminology and Conditions......Page 621
Study Outline......Page 622
Self-Quiz......Page 624
Answers to Figure Questions......Page 625
chapter 24 DEVELOPMENT AND INHERITANCE......Page 626
First Week of Development......Page 627
Second Week of Development......Page 630
Third Week of Development......Page 632
Fourth Through Eighth Weeks of Development......Page 634
Fetal Period......Page 636
Changes During Pregnancy......Page 639
Labor and Delivery......Page 640
Lactation......Page 641
Focus on Wellness: Breast Milk—Mother Nature’s Approach to Infection Prevention......Page 642
Genotype and Phenotype......Page 643
Autosomes and Sex Chromosomes......Page 644
Medical Terminology and Conditions......Page 646
Study Outline......Page 647
Self-Quiz......Page 649
Answers to Figure Questions......Page 650
Answers......Page 651
Glossary......Page 656
Credits......Page 685
Index......Page 687