Introduction to the Chemistry of Food

Front Cover
INTRODUCTION TO THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD
INTRODUCTION TO THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD
Copyright
Contents
Acknowledgments
One - Chemical properties of water and pH
	Introduction
		Structure of water
	Physical properties of water
		How can surface tension be demonstrated using a cup of water and a paperclip?
	Phase changes of water
	Water as a solid
		Why did my can of pop explode in the freezer?
	Water as a gas
		Why does it take longer to boil potatoes in Denver than in Chicago?
	Chemical properties of water
	Acid-base chemistry
		What is an acid or base?
	Ionization of water
	pH and measuring acidity
		What about the pH scale?
	Strong and weak acids
	Using Ka to calculate pH
		What is pKa?
	Weak acids and buffering
	Henderson-Hasselbalch equation
	Acid-base chemistry in food
		Gee fizz, what makes soda pop tasty?
	Chemical leavening
	Acidic salts
	Baking soda, baking powder, and double acting baking powder
	Titratable acidity
		What is the acid-ash hypothesis and does alkaline water make my bones stronger?
	Water in food
	Solutes, solubility, and solutions
	Ion-dipole interaction
	Dipole-dipole interaction
	Interaction of non-polar substances with water
		So what happens when olive oil is added to water?
	Water dispersions
	Emulsification
	Colloids
	Water activity (aw)
	Importance of aw to food spoilage and safety
	Relationship between water activity and moisture content
	Relationship between water activity and temperature
	Importance of aw to chemical and biochemical reactions in food
	Increasing moisture content without increasing water activity
	Summary
	Glossary
	References
	Further reading
	Properties of water
	Acid-base chemistry-in food
	Titratable acidity in wine
	Acid-ash hypothesis
	Properties of water
Two - Proteins
	Introduction
	Proteins and their properties
		How can we use our hands to demonstrate the concept of chirality?
	Forces responsible for protein structure
		So, what is responsible for the structure of a protein?
	Denaturation
		Why does an egg turn solid when dropped in boiling water?
	Protein nutritional quality
		What is a conditional amino acid?
	Food allergy
	Effects of processing on proteins
	Functional properties of food proteins
		Why do proteins precipitate at their isoelectric point?
		What factors influence the foaming properties of proteins?
		I just don\'t crack eggs very well. Will that little bit of yolk in my egg whites really matter when I am making meringues?
		Is a copper bowl better for whipping egg white?
		How are protein gels made?
	Enzymes in food
	Enzymatic browning
		Why do my apple slices always turn brown?
	Summary
	Glossary
	References
	Further reading
Three - Carbohydrates
	Introduction
	Carbohydrates forms
	Carbohydrate structure and nomenclature
		What is the easiest way to remember the definition of redox reactions?
		Why is honey so sweet and milk is not?
		Why does my grandmother have lactose intolerance?
		Can I use a FODMAP to get me to California?
		Why doesn’t pudding survive a freeze-thaw?
			What is instant starch?
	Seed gums
	Plant exudate gums
	Sea weed gums
	Microbial gums
	Summary
	Glossary
	References
	Further reading
	Prebiotics
	FODMAPS
	Maillard Chemistry
	Starch
	Hydrocolloids
Four - Lipids
	Introduction
	Lipid structure and nomenclature
	Naming fatty acids
		What are LDL and HDL?
	Functional properties of lipids in food
		What is tempering and how does it make my chocolate better?
		Lipid chemistry
		What is hydrolytic rancidity?
		What is shortening and is it bad for me?
		Singlet oxygen formation
		Vitamins as antioxidants
		Natural antioxidants-carotenoids
		Natural Antioxidants–Phenolic compounds
		Natural Antioxidants-Curcumin
	Lipids and health
		What is an essential fatty acid?
	Summary
	Glossary
	References
	Further reading
	Wikipedia
Five - Vitamins and minerals
	Introduction
		What are micronutrients?
	Nutritional labeling and food regulation
		What does the nutrition facts label tell me?
	Dietary intake recommendations
	Taking a closer look at vitamins important to diet and health
	B vitamins
	Vitamin B1, thiamin
		Biological importance and supplementation
		Means of loss
	Vitamin B2, riboflavin
		Biological importance and supplementation
		Means of loss
	Vitamin B3 niacin
		Biological importance and supplementation
		Means of loss
	Vitamin B5, pantothenic acid
		Biological importance and supplementation
		Means of loss
	Vitamin B6, pyridoxine, pyridoxamine, pyridoxal
		Biological importance and supplementation
		Means of loss
	Vitamin B7 biotin
		Biological importance and supplementation
		Means of loss
	Vitamin B9 folates
		Biological importance and supplementation
		Means of loss
	Vitamin B12 cobalamin
		Biological importance and supplementation
		Means of loss
	Vitamin C, ascorbic acid
		Biological importance and supplementation
		Means of loss
	Fat soluble vitamins
	Vitamin A, retinol
		Biological importance and supplementation
		Means of loss
	Vitamin D, calcitriol
		Biological importance and supplementation
		Means of loss
	Vitamin E, alpha tocopherol
		Biological importance and supplementation
		Means of loss
	Vitamin K1 phylloquinone
		Biological importance and supplementation
		Means of loss
		How is vitamin activity lost in processed food?
	Minerals
	Calcium (Ca)
		Biological importance and supplementation
	Magnesium (Mg)
		Biological importance and supplementation
	Sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl)
		Biological importance and supplementation
	Salty questions
		Where does most sodium come from?
		What foods contain the most salt?
		How is sea salt different from ordinary table salt?
	Potassium (K)
		Biological importance and supplementation
	Phosphorous (P)
		Biological importance and supplementation
	Chromium (Cr)
		Biological importance and supplementation
	Copper (Cu)
		Biological importance and supplementation
	Fluorine (F)
		Biological importance and supplementation
	Iodine (I)
		Biological importance and supplementation
	Iron (Fe)
		Biological importance and supplementation
	Manganese (Mn)
		Biological importance and supplementation
	Molybdenum (Mo)
		Biological importance and supplementation
	Selenium (Se)
		Biological importance and supplementation
	Zinc (Zn)
		Biological importance and supplementation
	Can supplements be harmful?
	Summary
	Glossary
	References
	Further reading
six - Flavors
	Introduction
	Taste buds and receptors
		What is a gustatory taste map?
		Taste receptors and health
	Sweet
		What is the mechanism of sweet perception?
	Other sweet tastants
		Amino acids
		Polyols
	Sugar substitutes (synthetic substances)
		Acesulfame K
		Aspartame
		Cyclamate
		Saccharin
		Sucralose
	Natural sugar substitutes
		Brazzein
		Thaumatin
		Monellin
		Miraculin
		Steviol
		Glycyrrhizin
		Mogroside
			Do sugar substitutes contribute to health?
	Bitter
		Bitter tastants
		Denatonium
		Quinine
			Why is beer bitter?
		Proteins
		Caffeine
		Flavonoid bitterness
		Oleuropein
	Umami
		Nucleotides
	Salt
		What is hidden salt?
	Sour
		Food acids and sour taste
	Pungency
		Capsaicin
		Piperine
		Glucosinolates
		Carbonated beverages
			Olfactory perception (is flavor created in the brain?)
	Smell
	Herbs and spices
		Garlic
		Health benefits of garlic
		Onion
	Summary
	Glossary
	References
	Further reading
Seven - Food additives
	Introduction
	Regulation of food additives in the United States
		Additional major legislation
		Regulation of additives in other countries
	Types of food additives
	Food acids and acidity regulators
		Chemical leavening
		Acidity regulators
		Buffering capacity
	Bases
		What is alkaline water? Does it have health benefits?
	Salts
	Antimicrobials
		Acetic acid
		Propionic acid
		Sorbic acid
		Benzoic acid
		Antibiotics
		Epoxides
		Nitrite
			Why is bacon considered an unhealthy food?
		Sulfur dioxide and sulfite
		Sulfite reactions affecting color and flavor
		Physiological effects of sulfite
			Does the sulfite in wine cause headache?
	Chelators (sequestering agents)
	Antioxidants
		What are antioxidants? How do they work?
		Ascorbic acid
		BHA and BHT
	Hydrocolloids
		Molecular gastronomy and hydrocolloids
		Gelation
		Agar
		Gelatin
		Pectin
		Carrageenan
		Alginic acid/alginate
	Stabilizers and thickeners
	Emulsifiers
	Fat replacers
	Food enzymes
	Toxins and toxicants
	Food toxins
		Alkaloids
		Glycosides
		Proteins
	Microbial toxins
		What is the difference between food poisoning and foodborne illness?
		Algae
		Campylobacter
		Clostridium botulinum
		Clostridium perfringens
		Escherichia coli O157:H7
		Listeria monocytogenes
		Norovirus
		Salmonella
		Shigella
		Staphylococcus aureus
		Vibrio vulnificus
		Mycotoxins
		Tetrodotoxin
	Toxic metals in food
		Aluminum (Al)
		Arsenic (As)
		Cadmium (Cd)
		Lead (Pb)
		A sad case of lead pipes and chemistry
		Mercury (Hg)
	Process induced toxins
		Acrylamide
	Toxicants
		Bisphenol A
		Dioxin
	Summary
	Glossary
	References
	Further reading
Eight - Food colorants
	Introduction
	Natural food colorants
	Anthocyanins
		Why do people swirl their wine?
		Health promoting properties of flavonoids
		Anthocyanin alternatives to artificial colorants
	Curcumin
	Betalain (Betacyanin)
	Caramel
	Carmine/Carminic Acid
	Carotenoids
		Carotenoids in food
		What are the health promoting effects of carotenoids?
		Carotenoids and cancer
		Eye disease and macular degeneration
		Carotenoids as alternatives to synthetic colorants
	Chlorophyll
		Can chlorophyll be used as an alternative to artificial food colorants?
		Chlorophyll and health
	Phycocyanin
	Colorants exempt from certification
	Heme
	Cured meat color
	Leghemoglobin
		Is leghemoglobin safe to eat?
	Heme and health
	Minerals (inorganic food colorants)
	Artificial food colorants
		How are safe levels for artificial colorant use established?
		Certified color additives
		Do food artificial colorants contribute to hyperactivity in children?
			The Feingold hypothesis
			Update
	Summary
	Glossary
	References
	Further reading
Nine - Food systems and future directions
	Introduction
	The gut microbiome
	Prebiotics, fiber, and probiotics
	Importance of the microbiome to health
		Immunity and inflammation
		Gut-brain axis
	Diet and health
	Effects of food additives on gut microbiota
	Microbiota-directed food (MDF)/Personalized nutrition
	Animal food systems and their composition
	Meat
	Effects of meat on microbiome
	Milk
	Egg
	Plant food systems and their composition
		Soybean
	Wheat
	Rice
	Protein-rich plant foods and their composition
	Amaranth
	Canola
	Chia
	Flaxseed
	Lentils
	Peas
	Oats
	Peanut
	Quinoa
	Microbial Protein-rich foods (fungi and algae)
	Mycoprotein
	Algal protein
	Novel foods, plant-based animal foods
	Plant-based meat
	Clean meat
	Novel foods, edible insects
	Summary
	Glossary
	References
	Further reading
	General
	The microbiome
	Proteins of the future
	Clean meat
Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	X
	Y
	Z
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