Introduction to Psychology

Front Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright......Page 5
Contents......Page 10
1 What Is Psychology?......Page 28
General Points About Psychology......Page 30
Major Philosophical Issues in Psychology......Page 31
What Psychologists Do......Page 34
Should You Major in Psychology?......Page 40
IN CLOSING: Types of Psychologists......Page 41
Key Terms......Page 42
The Early Era......Page 43
The Rise of Behaviorism......Page 48
Recent Trends......Page 49
Summary......Page 51
Why Does This Matter to Me?......Page 52
Additional Resources......Page 53
2 Scientific Methods in Psychology......Page 54
Steps for Gathering and Evaluating Evidence......Page 56
Criteria for Evaluating Scientific Theories......Page 58
Answers to Other Questions in the Module......Page 63
General Principles of Psychological Research......Page 64
Observational Research Designs......Page 68
Experiments......Page 74
What’s the Evidence? Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics?......Page 75
Ethical Considerations in Research......Page 77
IN CLOSING: Psychological Research......Page 78
Key Terms......Page 79
Descriptive Statistics......Page 80
Evaluating Results: Inferential Statistics......Page 83
Summary......Page 84
Suggestions For Further Exploration......Page 85
Additional Resources......Page 86
Web/Technology Resources......Page 87
3 Biological Psychology......Page 88
Nervous System Cells......Page 90
The Action Potential......Page 92
Synapses......Page 93
What’s the Evidence? Neurons Communicate Chemically......Page 95
Neurotransmitters and Behavior......Page 96
IN CLOSING: Neurons, Synapses, and Behavior......Page 97
Key Terms......Page 98
Stimulants......Page 99
Depressants......Page 100
Marijuana......Page 101
Hallucinogens......Page 102
Key Terms......Page 105
The Major Divisions of the Nervous System......Page 106
Measuring Brain Activity......Page 112
The Autonomic Nervous System and Endocrine System......Page 113
Experience and Brain Plasticity......Page 115
The Two Hemispheres and Their Connections......Page 116
The Binding Problem......Page 118
Summary......Page 120
Suggestions For Further Exploration......Page 121
Additional Resources......Page 122
4 Sensation and Perception......Page 123
The Detection of Light......Page 125
Color Vision......Page 131
Answers to Other Questions in the Module......Page 135
Hearing......Page 136
The Vestibular Sense......Page 140
The Cutaneous Senses......Page 141
The Chemical Senses......Page 144
Synesthesia......Page 147
Summary......Page 148
Key Terms......Page 149
Perception of Minimal Stimuli......Page 150
Perception and the Recognition of Patterns......Page 152
What’s the Evidence? Feature Detectors......Page 153
Perceiving Movement and Depth......Page 159
Optical Illusions......Page 162
Summary......Page 166
Answers to Other Questions in the Module......Page 167
Additional Resources......Page 168
5 Nature, Nurture, and Human Development......Page 170
Genetic Principles......Page 172
How Genes Influence Behavior......Page 177
Evolution and Behavior......Page 178
The Fetus and the Newborn......Page 179
Key Terms......Page 181
Infancy......Page 182
Research Designs for Studying Development......Page 185
Jean Piaget’s View of Cognitive Development......Page 188
What’s the Evidence? The Infant’s Concept of Object Permanence......Page 189
What’s the Evidence? Children’s Understanding of Other People’s Knowledge......Page 191
Later Childhood and Adolescence: Piaget’s Stages of Concrete Operations and Formal Operations......Page 195
How Grown Up Are We?......Page 197
Summary......Page 198
Key Terms......Page 199
Erikson’s Description of Human Development......Page 200
Infancy and Childhood......Page 201
Social Development in Childhood and Adolescence......Page 202
Adulthood......Page 204
Old Age......Page 205
The Psychology of Facing Death......Page 206
Key Terms......Page 207
Gender Influences......Page 208
Cultural and Ethnic Influences......Page 211
The Family......Page 213
Key Terms......Page 218
Additional Resources......Page 219
6 Learning......Page 221
Module 6.1 Behaviorism......Page 223
The Rise of Behaviorism......Page 224
The Assumptions of Behaviorism......Page 225
Key Terms......Page 226
Pavlov and Classical Conditioning......Page 227
What’s the Evidence? Emotional Conditioning Without Awareness......Page 231
Drug Tolerance as an Example of Classical Conditioning......Page 232
Explanations of Classical Conditioning......Page 233
Key Terms......Page 236
Thorndike and Operant Conditioning......Page 237
Reinforcement and Punishment......Page 239
Additional Phenomena of Operant Conditioning......Page 242
B. F. Skinner and the Shaping of Responses......Page 243
Applications of Operant Conditioning......Page 246
Summary......Page 248
Key Terms......Page 249
Conditioned Taste Aversions......Page 250
Birdsong Learning......Page 253
Social Learning......Page 254
Summary......Page 257
Suggestions For Further Exploration......Page 258
Additional Resources......Page 259
7 Memory......Page 260
Ebbinghaus’s Pioneering Studies of Memory......Page 262
Methods of Testing Memory......Page 263
Application: Suspect Lineups as Recognition Memory......Page 265
Children as Eyewitnesses......Page 266
The Information-Processing View of Memory......Page 267
Working Memory......Page 270
Summary......Page 272
Answers to Other Question in the Module......Page 273
Encoding......Page 274
The Timing of Study Sessions......Page 279
Mnemonic Devices......Page 280
Storage......Page 281
Retrieval......Page 282
Answers to Other Questions in the Module......Page 285
Retrieval and Interference......Page 286
A Controversy: “Recovered Memories” or “False Memories”?......Page 287
What’s the Evidence? Suggestions and False Memories......Page 289
Amnesia......Page 290
IN CLOSING: Memory Loss and Distortion......Page 295
Key Terms......Page 296
Additional Resources......Page 297
8 Cognition and Language......Page 299
What’s the Evidence? Mental Imagery......Page 301
Attention......Page 302
Attention-Deficit Disorder......Page 307
Categorization......Page 308
Key Terms......Page 311
Answers to Other Questions in the Module......Page 312
Module 8.2 Solving Problems, Making Decisions, and Thinking......Page 313
Algorithms and Heuristics......Page 314
Other Common Errors in Human Cognition......Page 317
Expertise......Page 320
Unconscious Thinking and Problem Solving......Page 321
Key Terms......Page 323
Answers to Other Questions in the Module......Page 324
Nonhuman Precursors to Language......Page 325
Human Specializations for Learning Language......Page 327
Language Development......Page 329
Understanding Language......Page 332
Reading......Page 334
Summary......Page 337
Suggestions For Further Exploration......Page 338
Additional Resources......Page 339
9 Intelligence......Page 340
What Is Intelligence?......Page 342
IQ Tests......Page 346
IN CLOSING: Measuring Something We Don’t Fully Understand......Page 349
Answers to Other Question in the Module......Page 350
The Standardization of IQ Tests......Page 351
Evaluation of Tests......Page 354
Are IQ Tests Biased?......Page 357
What’s the Evidence? Stereotype Threat......Page 360
Individual Differences in IQ Scores......Page 361
IN CLOSING: Consequences of Testing......Page 363
Answers to Other Question in the Module......Page 364
Additional Resources......Page 365
10 Consciousness......Page 367
Brain Mechanisms Necessary for Consciousness......Page 369
Can We Use Brain Measurements Infer Consciousness?......Page 370
Consciousness as a Threshold Phenomenon......Page 371
Unconscious or Altered Perception......Page 372
What’s the Evidence? Consciousness and Action......Page 374
Summary......Page 376
Key Terms......Page 377
Our Circadian Rhythms......Page 378
Why We Sleep......Page 381
Stages of Sleep......Page 383
Abnormalities of Sleep......Page 385
The Content of Our Dreams......Page 387
Key Terms......Page 390
Ways of Inducing Hypnosis......Page 391
The Uses and Limitations of Hypnosis......Page 392
What’s the Evidence? Hypnosis and Memory......Page 394
What’s the Evidence? Hypnosis and Risky Acts......Page 395
Is Hypnosis an Altered State of Consciousness?......Page 396
IN CLOSING: What Hypnosis Is and Isn’t......Page 397
Why Does This Matter to Me?......Page 398
Additional Resources......Page 399
11 Motivated Behaviors......Page 400
Views of Motivation......Page 402
Conflicting Motivations......Page 404
Summary......Page 406
Key Terms......Page 407
The Physiology of Hunger and Satiety......Page 408
Eating Too Much or Too Little......Page 411
Key Terms......Page 416
What Do People Do and How Often?......Page 417
Sexual Anatomy and Identity......Page 421
Sexual Orientation......Page 424
What’s the Evidence? Sexual Orientation and Brain Anatomy......Page 427
Key Terms......Page 428
What’s the Evidence? The Value of Deadlines......Page 429
Job Design and Job Satisfaction......Page 431
Leadership......Page 433
Summary......Page 434
Additional Resources......Page 435
12 Emotions, Stress, and Health......Page 437
Measuring Emotions......Page 439
Emotion, Arousal, and Action......Page 441
What’s the Evidence? The Cognitive Aspect of Emotion......Page 443
Do We Have a Few “Basic” Emotions?......Page 445
Usefulness of Emotions......Page 450
Emotional Intelligence......Page 452
Summary......Page 454
Answers to Other Question in the Module......Page 455
Fear and Anxiety......Page 456
Anger and Aggressive Behavior......Page 458
Happiness, Joy, and Positive Psychology......Page 460
Sadness......Page 463
In Closing: Emotions and the Richness of Life......Page 464
Key Terms......Page 465
Stress......Page 466
How Stress Affects Health......Page 468
Coping with Stress......Page 470
IN CLOSING: Health Is Mental as Well as Medical......Page 474
Key Terms......Page 475
Additional Resources......Page 476
13 Social Psychology......Page 478
Developing Morality and Cooperation......Page 480
Altruistic Behavior......Page 482
Accepting or Denying Responsibility Toward Others......Page 485
IN CLOSING: Is Cooperative Behavior Logical?......Page 487
Key Terms......Page 488
First Impressions......Page 489
Stereotypes and Prejudices......Page 490
Attribution......Page 493
Key Terms......Page 498
Attitudes and Behavior......Page 499
Central and Peripheral Routes of Attitude Change and Persuasion......Page 501
Key Terms......Page 506
Establishing Relationships......Page 507
Special Concerns in Selecting a Mate......Page 511
Marriage......Page 513
Summary......Page 514
Key Terms......Page 515
Conformity......Page 516
Obedience to Authority......Page 518
What’s the Evidence? The Milgram Experiment......Page 519
Group Decision Making......Page 521
IN CLOSING: Fix the Situation, Not Human Nature......Page 522
Why Does This Matter to Me?......Page 523
Additional Resources......Page 524
14 Personality......Page 525
Sigmund Freud and the Psychodynamic Approach......Page 527
Carl Jung and the Collective Unconscious......Page 533
Alfred Adler and Individual Psychology......Page 535
The Learning Approach......Page 536
Humanistic Psychology......Page 537
IN CLOSING: In Search of Human Nature......Page 539
Key Terms......Page 540
The Search for Broad Personality Traits......Page 541
The Big Five Model of Personality......Page 543
The Origins of Personality......Page 545
Summary......Page 549
Key Terms......Page 550
Standardized Personality Tests......Page 551
An Objective Personality Test: The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory......Page 552
The NEO PI-R......Page 553
Projective Techniques......Page 554
Implicit Personality Tests......Page 556
Uses and Misuses of Personality Tests......Page 557
Personality Tests in Action: Criminal Profiling......Page 558
What’s the Evidence? Criminal Profiling......Page 559
Summary......Page 560
Why Does This Matter to Me?......Page 561
Additional Resources......Page 562
15 Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues......Page 563
Defining Abnormal Behavior......Page 565
Classifying Psychological Disorders......Page 568
IN CLOSING: Is Anyone Normal?......Page 571
Key Terms......Page 572
Historical Trends in Psychotherapy......Page 573
Psychoanalysis......Page 574
Behavior Therapy......Page 575
Therapies That Focus on Thoughts and Beliefs......Page 577
Humanistic Therapy......Page 578
Trends in Psychotherapy......Page 579
What’s the Evidence? How Effective Is Psychotherapy?......Page 581
Comparing Therapies and Therapists......Page 583
Summary......Page 586
Key Terms......Page 587
Deinstitutionalization......Page 588
The Duty to Protect......Page 589
The Insanity Defense......Page 590
Preventing Mental Illness......Page 591
Key Terms......Page 592
Additional Resources......Page 593
16 Specific Disorders and Treatments......Page 595
Disorders with Excessive Anxiety......Page 597
Disorders with Exaggerated Avoidance......Page 599
What’s the Evidence? Learning Fear by Observation......Page 600
IN CLOSING: Emotions and Avoidance......Page 606
Answers to Other Questions in the Module......Page 607
Substance Dependence (Addiction)......Page 608
Alcoholism......Page 610
What’s the Evidence? Ways of Predicting Alcoholism......Page 612
Opiate Dependence......Page 614
Summary......Page 615
Key Terms......Page 616
Depression......Page 617
Bipolar Disorder......Page 624
Mood Disorders and Suicide......Page 626
Key Terms......Page 627
Symptoms of Schizophrenia......Page 628
Types and Prevalence......Page 630
Causes......Page 631
Therapies......Page 633
Autism......Page 635
Summary......Page 636
Suggestions For Further Exploration......Page 637
Additional Resources......Page 638
EPILOGUE......Page 639
REFERENCES......Page 640
NAME INDEX......Page 684
SUBJECT INDEX / GLOSSARY......Page 699