Introduction to Infrared and Electro-optical Systems

Introduction to Infrared and Electro-Optical Systems Third Edition
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1
Introduction
	1.1 Introduction to Imaging
	1.2 Infrared and EO Systems
	1.3 Wavelength Dependencies
	1.4 Typical EO Scenario
	1.5 Typical Infrared Scenario
	1.6 Analytical Parameters
	1.7 Sensitivity and Resolution
	1.8 Linear Systems Approach
	1.9 Summary
	1.10 Guide to the References
	References
Chapter 2
Mathematics
	2.1 Complex Functions
	2.2 Common One-Dimensional Functions
	2.3 The 2-D Functions
	2.4 Convolution and Correlation
	2.5 The Fourier Transform
	2.6 Fourier Transform Properties
	2.7 Transform Pairs and Delta Function Properties
	2.8 Probability
	2.9 Important Examples
	2.10 Guide to the References
	References
	Selected Bibliography
	Software
Chapter 3
Linear Shift-Invariant Systems
	3.1 Linear Systems
	3.2 Shift Invariance
	3.3 Basics of LSI Systems
	3.4 Impulse Response
	3.5 Transfer Function
	3.6 System PSF and MTF Versus Component PSF and MTF
	3.7 Spatial Sampling
	3.8 Spatial Sampling and Resolution
	3.9 Sampled Imaging Systems
	3.10 Guide to the References
	References
	Selected Bilbiography
Chapter 4
Diffraction
	4.1 Electromagnetic Waves
	4.2 Coherence
	4.3 Fresnel and Fraunhofer Diffraction from an Aperture
		4.3.1 Fresnel Diffraction
		4.3.2 Fraunhofer Diffraction
	4.4 Fraunhofer Diffraction from a Thin Lens
	4.5 Thin Lens Optical System Diffraction PSF
	4.6 Thin Lens Diffraction MTF
		4.6.1 Modulation and MTF
		4.6.2 Incoherent Diffraction MTF
		4.6.3 Coherent Diffraction MTF
	4.7 Calculation of Diffraction MTF
		4.7.1 Circular Pupil: Coherent MTF
		4.7.2 Circular Pupil: Incoherent MTF
	4.8 Programs for Calculating Incoherent Diffraction MTF
	4.9 Applications of Diffraction Theory
		4.9.1 Frequency Analysis of Optical Systems
		4.9.2 Application to Geometric Optics
		4.9.3 PSF of Distributed Aperture
		4.9.4 Optical Image Processing
		4.9.5 Stellar Interferometry
		4.9.6 Apodization
		4.9.7 Detector MTF from the Fraunhofer Diffraction Pattern
	4.10 Light Goes Around Corners: The Poisson Spot
	References
Chapter 5
Sources of Radiation
	5.1 Radiometry and Photometry
		5.1.1 Radiometric Units
		5.1.2 Photometric Units
	5.2 Infrared Targets and Backgrounds
		5.2.1 Blackbody Radiation
		5.2.2 Emissivity
		5.2.3 Equivalent Differential Temperature (Delta T)
		5.2.4 Apparent Differential Temperature (Apparent Delta T)
	5.3 EO Targets and Backgrounds
		5.3.1 External Sources
		5.3.2 Contrast
	5.4 Other Sensitivity Considerations
		5.4.1 Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function
		5.4.2 Color Considerations
	5.5 Target and Background Spatial Characteristics
		5.5.1 Bar Target Representation of Targets
		5.5.2 Target Delta T and Characteristic Dimension
		5.5.3 Summary of Target Characteristics
		5.5.4 Clutter
		5.5.5 Simulation of Target Characteristics
	5.6 Typical Mid-Wave and Long-Wave Contrasts and Solar Effects
	References
	Selected Bibliography
Chapter 6
Atmospherics
	6.1 Atmospheric Components and Structure
	6.2 Atmospheric Transmission
	6.3 Absorption
	6.4 Scattering
	6.5 Path Radiance
	6.6 Turbulence
	6.7 Atmospheric Modulation Transfer Function
	6.8 Models and Tools
	6.9 Model Background Discussion
	6.10 Some Practical Considerations
	References
Chapter 7
Optics
	7.1 Light Representation and the Optical Path Length
	7.2 Reflection and Snell’s Law of Refraction
	7.3 The Thin Lens, Ray-Tracing Rules, and Gauss’s Equation
	7.4 Spherical Mirrors
	7.5 Modeling the Thick Lens
	7.6 Vergence
	7.7 Multiple-Lens Systems
	7.8 FOV
	7.9 Resolution
	7.10 Aperture Stop, Pupils, and Rays
	7.11 f-Number and Numerical Aperture
	7.12 Telescopes and Angular Magnification
	7.13 MTF
	7.14 Aberrations
	7.15 Optical Materials
	7.16 Cold Stop and Cold Shield
	7.17 A Typical Optical System
	7.18 Diffraction Blur
	References
Chapter 8
Detectors
	8.1 Types of Detectors
		8.1.1 Photon Detectors
		8.1.2 Photoconductors
		8.1.3 Photovoltaic
		8.1.4 Photoemissive
		8.1.5 Thermal Detectors
		8.1.6 Bolometers
		8.1.7 Pyroelectric Detectors
	8.2 CCD and ROIC
		8.2.1 CCD
		8.2.2 Multiplexed Analog Readout
		8.2.3 Column ADC ROIC or D-ROIC
	8.3 Detector Sensitivity Analysis
		8.3.1 Quantum Efficiency
		8.3.2 Responsivity
		8.3.3 Sensitivity
		8.3.4 Detector Angular Subtense
		8.3.5 FPA and Detector Noise (Including Detector 1/f Noise)
		8.3.6 Dark Current and Rule’07
		8.3.7 1/f Noise
		8.3.8 Photon Shot Noise
		8.3.9 FPA and ROIC Noise (Including Fixed Pattern Noise) in Staring Systems
		8.3.10 BLIP
	8.4 EO Systems: Staring and Scanning Configurations
		8.4.1 Raster Scan Systems
		8.4.2 Linear Scan and TDI
		8.4.3 Staring Systems: Focal Plane Arrays
	8.5 Detector Transfer Functions
	8.6 EO Detectors: Materials and Technology
		8.6.1 MWIR and LWIR Photon Detectors
		8.6.2 Far Infrared: VLWIR
		8.6.3 Uncooled Bolometer
		8.6.4 Visible and NIR
	8.7 New and Emerging Infrared Detector Technology
		8.7.1 Ultra-Large-Format Arrays and Small Pitch
		8.7.2 Dual-Band Detectors (Third Generation)
		8.7.2 Dual-Band Detectors (Third Generation)
		8.7.3 Direct Bond Hybridization
		8.7.4 Advanced ROIC Technology and Digital Pixel
		8.7.5 Next Generation Imagers
		8.7.6 Avalanche Photodiodes, Laser Range Gating, and Active and PassiveDetectors
	References
Chapter 9
Electronics
	9.1 Detector Circuits
	9.2 Conversion of Spatial and Temporal Frequencies
	9.3 Electronics Transfer Function
	9.4 Noise
		9.4.1 Johnson Noise
		9.4.2 1/f Noise
		9.4.3 Shot Noise
	9.5 MTF Boost Filter
	9.6 Digital Filter MTF
	9.7 CCDs
	9.8 Uniformity Correction or NUC
	9.9 Design and Construction of Camera Electronics
	References
Chapter 10
Image Processing
	10.1 Basics of Sampling Theory
	10.2 Applications of Image Filtering
		10.2.1 Localized Contrast Enhancement
		10.2.2 Boost Filtering
		10.2.3 Sensor Design Considerations
	10.3 Super-Resolution Image Reconstruction
		10.3.1 Image Acquisition: Microdither Scanner Versus Natural Jitter
		10.3.2 Subpixel Shift Estimation
		10.3.3 Image Reconstruction
		10.3.4 Example and Performance Estimates
	10.4 Image Fusion
	10.4.1 Fusion Algorithms
	10.5 Scene-Based NUC
	10.6 Deep Learning
		10.6.1 Super-Resolution
		10.6.2 Contrast Enhancement
		10.6.3 Image Fusion
		10.6.4 Scene-Based NUC
	10.7 Summary
	References
Chapter 11
Displays, Human Perception, and Automatic Target Recognizers
	11.1 Displays
	11.2 CRTs
	11.2.1 CRT Example Results
	11.3 LEDs
	11.4 LCDs
	11.5 Plasma Displays
	11.6 Emerging Display Technologies
	11.7 Sampling and Display Processing
	11.8 Human Perception and the Human Eye
	11.9 MTF of the Eye
	11.10 CTF of the Eye
	11.11 Automatic Target Recognition
	References
Chapter 12
Historical Performance Models
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Johnson Model Fundamentals
	12.3 The MRT Model
	12.4 The First FLIRs and Models
	12.5 Model Improvements for Resolution and Noise
	12.6 Incorporating Eye Contrast Limitations
	12.7 Model Improvement to Add Sampling
	12.8 Other Improvements Prior to the TTP Metric
	12.9 The TRM3 Model
	12.10 Triangle Orientation Discrimination (TOD)
	12.11 Imager Modeling, Measurement, and Field Performance
	References
Chapter 13
Contrast Threshold and TTP Metric
	13.1 CTF of the Naked Eye
	13.2 CTF for the Eye-Display System
	13.3 Validation of Eye-Display CTF
	13.4 Eye-Display Contrast Threshold Model
		13.4.1 Eye-Display Contrast Threshold Model
		13.4.2 Define Functions
		13.4.3 Define Input Parameters
		13.4.4 Run the Program
		13.4.5 Comparison with Existing Models
	13.5 TTP Metric and Range Performance Mode
	13.6 Guide to the References
	References
	Appendix 13A
		13A.1 Direct Calculation of CTFeye–disp,h
Chapter 14
EO and Infrared System Performance andTarget Acquisition
	14.1 Sensitivity and Resolution
	14.2 NETD
	14.3 EO Noise and Noise Equivalent Irradiance
		14.3.1 Noise Equivalent Irradiance
	14.4 3-D Noise
	14.5 MTF
	14.6 MRTD (Including 2-D MRT)
		14.6.1 2-D MRT
	14.7 Target Acquisition with Limiting Frequency (Johnson’s N50)
	14.8 System CTF
	14.9 Target Acquisition with the Target Task Performance (TTP)Metric (and Vollmerhausen’s V50)
	14.10 Target Sets
	14.11 Classic ISR, NIIRS, and General Image Quality
		14.11.1 NIIRS
		14.11.2 GIQE Model
	14.12 The Performance Benefits of Dual-Band Infrared Imagers
		14.12.1 Dual-Band Imagers
		14.12.2 Long-Range Target Detection and Identification
		14.12.3 Imaging with Hot Targets in the FOV
		14.12.4 Cold-Weather Performance
		14.12.5 Imaging Through Turbulence
		14.12.6 Imaging Through Fog-Oil Smoke
		14.12.7 Target Contrast (Up Close)
		14.12.8 ATR Performance
		14.12.9 Motion Blur and Integration Time
		14.12.10 Target Spectral Exploitation
		14.12.11 Signal and Image Processing: Boost, Local Area Contrast
Enhancement
		14.12.12 Imaging Through Fog, High Humidity, Rain, Haze, Smoke, and Dust
		14.12.13 Discussion
	14.13 Small Detector Infrared Systems
		14.13.1 Small Detector Infrared System Fundamentals
		14.13.2 Choosing Detector Array Dimensions for SPHD Sensors
		14.13.3 Practical Benefits of LWIR SPHD Sensors
		14.13.4 MWIR SPHD Sensors
		14.13.5 MWIR SPFF Sensors
		14.13.6 LWIR SPFF Sensors
		14.13.7 Summary
	14.14 Persistent Surveillance
	References
Chapter 15
Simplified Target Acquisition Model
	15.1 Introduction to the Simple Model
	15.2 NVIPM
	15.3 Simple Model Based on Fλ/d
	15.4 Sensors
	15.5 Prediction of R50
	15.6 Probability as a Function of Range
	15.7 Characteristic Dimension and V50
	15.8 Discussion
	References
	Selected Bibliography
Chapter 16
Pilotage
	16.1 Introduction to Pilotage
	16.2 TTP with Scene Contrast
	16.3 Vollmerhausen and Bui
	16.4 Scene Contrast Temperature
	16.5 Discussion
	16.6 Conclusion
	References
	Selected Bibliography
Chapter 17
Infrared Search and Track
	17.1 Introduction to IRST
	17.2 IRST Systems
	17.3 Signal Radiometry
	17.4 PVF
	17.5 Noise and Integration Time
	17.6 NEI
	17.7 Targets
		17.7.1 Graybody Target
		17.7.2 Differential Radiance or Intensity
		17.7.3 High-Speed Targets
		17.7.4 Broadband Intensity Models/Measurements
	17.8 Atmospheric Background and Path Radiance
	17.9 Broadband Example
	17.10 Spectral Example
	17.11 Optimization of System Performance
	17.12 Scanned Versus Staring Systems
	17.13 Discussion
	17.14 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 18
Search
	18.1 Problem Definition
	18.2 Introduction to Search Theory
	18.3 Technique for Estimating Search Parameters and Their Uncertainties
	18.4 Search Parameters and NVIPM
	18.5 Time-Limited Search
	18.6 FOR Search
	18.7 Multiple Observers, Single Sensor, Unlimited Time, and Shared
Knowledge
	18.8 Independent Search with Two Sensors, Unlimited Time, and
Shared Knowledge
	18.9 Time-Dependent Search Parameters Search Model
	18.10 Other Work
	18.10.1 Neoclassical Search Model
	18.11 Guide to References
	References
	Selected Bibliography
	Appendix 18A: Time-Unlimited FOR Search
	Appendix 18B: Detection Time and Probabilities with SharedInformation
		18B.1 Useful Mathematical Result
		18B.2 The Mean Time for the First Observer to Detect a Target Given nObservers and PÇ
		18B.3 The Mean Time to Detect a Target with Two Observers Using TwoSensors
		18B.4 PDF for Detection Time with Two Observers Using Two Sensors
	Appendix 18C: Mathematica Search Code for TDSP Search Model
	Chapter 19 Laboratory Measurements of Infrared
Imaging System Performance
		19.1 Sensitivity
		19.2 Resolution
		19.3 Human Performance: MRTD
		19.4 DMRT
		19.5 Image Temporal Response and Stability/Drift
		19.6 Operability Considerations
		19.7 EO Test Instrumentation
		19.8 Environmental Testing
	References
List of Symbols
List of Acronyms
About the Authors
Index