Introduction to General, Organic and Biochemistry

Front Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
Contents in Brief
Contents
Preface
Health-Related Topics
Chapter 1 Matter, Energy, and Measurement
	1.1 Why Do We Call Chemistry the Study of Matter?
	1.2 What Is the Scientific Method?
	1.3 How Do Scientists Report Numbers?
		How To... Determine the Number of Significant Figures in a Number
	1.4 How Do We Make Measurements?
	1.5 What Is a Handy Way to Convert from One Unit to Another?
		How To... Do Unit Conversions by the Factor-Label Method
	1.6 What Are the States of Matter?
	1.7 What Are Density and Specific Gravity?
	1.8 How Do We Describe the Various Forms of Energy?
	1.9 How Do We Describe Heat and the Ways in Which It Is Transferred?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	Chemical Connections
	1A: Drug Dosage and Body Mass
	1B: Hypothermia and Hyperthermia
	1C: Cold Compresses, Waterbeds, and Lakes
Chapter 2 Atoms
	2.1 What Is Matter Made Of?
	2.2 How Do We Classify Matter?
	2.3 What Are the Postulates of Dalton\'s Atomic Theory?
	2.4 What Are Atoms Made Of?
	2.5 What Is the Periodic Table?
	2.6 How Are the Electrons in an Atom Arranged?
	2.7 How Are Electron Configuration and Position in the Periodic Table Related?
	2.8 What Is a Periodic Property?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	Chemical Connections
	2A: Elements Necessary for Human Life
	2B: Abundance of Elements Present in the Human Body and Earth\'s Crust
	2C: Isotopic Abundance and Astrochemistry
	2D: Strontium-90
	2E: The Use of Metals as Historical Landmarks
Chapter 3 Chemical Bonds
	3.1 What Do We Need to Know Before We Begin?
	3.2 What Is the Octet Rule?
	3.3 How Do We Name Anions and Cations?
	3.4 What Are the Two Major Types of Chemical Bonds?
	3.5 What Is an Ionic Bond?
	3.6 How Do We Name Ionic Compounds?
	3.7 What Is a Covalent Bond?
		How To... Draw Lewis Structures
	3.8 How Do We Name Binary Covalent Compounds?
	3.9 What Is Resonance?
		How To... Draw Curved Arrows and Push Electrons
	3.10 How Do We Predict Bond Angles in Covalent Molecules?
	3.11 How Do We Determine if a Molecule Is Polar?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	Chemical Connections
	3A: Coral Chemistry and Broken Bones
	3B: Ionic Compounds in Medicine
	3C: Nitric Oxide: Air Pollutant and Biological Messenger
Chapter 4 Chemical Reactions
	4.1 What Is a Chemical Reaction?
	4.2 What Are Formula Weights and Molecular Weights?
	4.3 What Is a Mole and How Do We Use it to Calculate Mass Relationships?
	4.4 How Do We Balance Chemical Equations?
		How To... Balance a Chemical Equation
	4.5 How Do We Calculate Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions?
	4.6 How Can We Predict if Ions in Aqueous Solutions Will React with Each Other?
	4.7 What Are Oxidation and Reduction?
	4.8 What Is Heat of Reaction?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	Chemical Connections
	4A: Solubility and Tooth Decay
	4B: Voltaic Cells
	4C: Oxidizing Antiseptics
Chapter 5 Gases, Liquids, and Solids
	5.1 What Are the Three States of Matter?
	5.2 What Is Gas Pressure and How Do We Measure It?
	5.3 What Are the Laws That Govern the Behavior of Gases?
	5.4 What Are Avogardo\'s Law and the Ideal Gas Law?
	5.5 What Is Dalton\'s Law of Partial Pressures?
	5.6 What Is the Kinetic Molecular Theory?
	5.7 What Types of Attractive Forces Exist Between Molecules?
	5.8 How Do We Describe the Behavior of Liquids at the Molecular Level?
	5.9 What Are the Characteristics of the Various Types of Solids?
	5.10 What Is a Phase Change and What Energies Are Involved?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	Chemical Connections
	5A: Entropy: A Measure of Dispersal of Energy
	5B: Breathing and Boyle\'s Law
	5C: Hyperbaric Medicine
	5D: Blood Pressure Measurement
	5E: The Densities of Ice and Water
	5F: Supercritical Carbon Dioxide
Chapter 6 Solutions and Colloids
	6.1 What Do We Need to Know as We Begin?
	6.2 What Are the Most Common Types of Solutions?
	6.3 What Are the Distinguishing Characteristics of Solutions?
	6.4 What Factors Affect Solubility?
	6.5 What Are the Most Common Units for Concentration?
	6.6 Why Is Water Such a Good Solvent?
	6.7 What Are Colloids?
	6.8 What Is a Colligative Property?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	Chemical Connections
	6A: Acid Rain
	6B: The Bends
	6C: Hydrates and Air Pollution: The Decay of Buildings and Monuments
	6D: Emulsions and Emulsifying Agents
	6E: Reverse Osmosis and Desalinization
	6F: Hemodialysis
Chapter 7 Reaction Rates and Chemical Equilibrium
	7.1 How Do We Measure Reaction Rates?
	7.2 Why Do Some Molecular Collisions Result in Reaction Whereas Others Do Not?
	7.3 What Is the Relationship Between Activation Energy and Reaction Rate?
	7.4 How Can We Change the Rate of a Chemical Reaction?
	7.5 What Does it Mean to Say That a Reaction Has Reached Equilibrium?
	7.6 What Is an Equilibrium Constant and How Do We Use It?
		How To... Interpret the Value of the Equilibrium Constant, K
	7.7 What Is Le Chatelier\'s Principle?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	Chemical Connections
	7A: Why High Fever Is Dangerous
	7B: The Effects of Lowering Body Temperature
	7C: Timed-Release Medication
	7D: Sunglasses and Le Chatelier\'s Principle
	7E: The Haber Process
Chapter 8 Acids and Bases
	8.1 What Are Acids and Bases?
	8.2 How Do We Define the Strength of Acids and Bases?
	8.3 What Are Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs?
		How To... Name Common Acids
	8.4 How Can We Tell the Position of Equilibrium in an Acid-Base Reaction?
	8.5 How Do We Use Acid Ionization Constants?
	8.6 What Are the Properties of Acids and Bases?
	8.7 What Are the Acidic and Basic Properties of Pure Water?
		How To... Use Logs and Antilogs
	8.8 What Are pH and pOH?
	8.9 How Do We Use Titration to Calculate Concentration?
	8.10 What Are Buffers?
	8.11 How Do We Calculate the pH of a Buffer?
	8.12 What Are TRIS, HEPES, and These Buffers with the Strange Names?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	Chemical Connections
	8A: Some Important Acids and Bases
	8B: Drugstore Antacids
	8C: Respiratory and Metabolic Acidosis
	8D: Alkalosis and the Sprinter\'s Trick
Chapter 9 Nuclear Chemistry
	9.1 How Was Radioactivity Discovered?
	9.2 What Is Radioactivity?
	9.3 What Happens When a Nucleus Emits Radioactivity?
		How To... Balance a Nuclear Equation
	9.4 What Is Nuclear Half-Life?
	9.5 How Do We Detect and Measure Nuclear Radiation?
	9.6 How Is Radiation Dosimetry Related to Human Health?
	9.7 What Is Nuclear Medicine?
	9.8 What Is Nuclear Fusion?
	9.9 What Is Nuclear Fission and How Is It Related to Atomic Energy?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Summary of Key Reactions
	Problems
	Chemical Connections
	9A: Radioactive Dating
	9B: The Indoor Radon Problem
	9C: How Radiation Damages Tissues: Free Radicals
	9D: Radioactive Fallout from Nuclear Accidents
Chapter 10 Organic Chemistry
	10.1 What Is Organic Chemistry?
	10.2 Where Do We Obtain Organic Compounds?
	10.3 How Do We Write Structural Formulas of Organic Compounds?
	10.4 What Is a Functional Group?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	Chemical Connections
	10A: Taxol: A Story of Search and Discovery
Chapter 11 Alkanes
	11.1 How Do We Write Structural Formulas of Alkanes?
	11.2 What Are Constitutional Isomers?
	11.3 How Do We Name Alkanes?
	11.4 Where Do We Obtain Alkanes?
	11.5 What Are Cycloalkanes?
	11.6 What Are the Shapes of Alkanes and Cycloalkanes?
	11.7 What Is Cis-Trans Isomerism in Cycloalkanes?
	11.8 What Are the Physical Properties of Alkanes?
	11.9 What Are the Characteristic Reactions of Alkanes
	11.10 What Are Some Important Haloalkanes?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Summary of Key Reactions
	Problems
	Chemical Connections
	11A: The Poisonous Puffer Fish
	11B: Octane Rating: What Those Numbers at the Pump Mean
	11C: The Environmental Impact of Freons
Chapter 12 Alkenes and Alkynes
	12.1 What Are Alkenes and Alkynes?
	12.2 What Are the Structures of Alkenes and Alkynes?
	12.3 How Do We Name Alkenes and Alkynes?
	12.4 What Are the Physical Properties of Alkenes and Alkynes?
	12.5 What Are Terpenes?
	12.6 What Are the Characteristic Reactions of Alkenes?
	12.7 What Are the Important Polymerization Reactions of Ethylene and Substituted Ethylenes?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Summary of Key Reactions
	Problems
	Chemical Connections
	12A: Ethylene: A Plant Growth Regulator
	12B: The Case of the Iowa and New York Strains of the European Corn Borer
	12C: Cis-Trans Isomerism in Vision
	12D: Recycling Plastics
Chapter 13 Benzene and Its Derivatives
	13.1 What Is the Structure of Benzene?
	13.2 How Do We Name Aromatic Compounds?
	13.3 What Are the Characteristic Reactions of Benzene and Its Derivatives?
	13.4 What Are Phenols?
	Summary of Key Questios
	Summary of Key Reactions
	Problems
	Chemical Connections
	13A: Carcinogenic Polynuclear Aromatics and Smoking
	13B: Iodide Ion and Goiter
	13C: The Nitro Group in Explosives
	13D: FD & C No. 6 (a.k.a. Sunset Yellow)
	13E: Capsaicin, for Those Who Like It Hot
Chapter 14 Alcohols, Ethers, and Thiols
	14.1 What Are the Structures, Names, and Physical Properties of Alcohols?
	14.2 What Are the Characteristic Reactions of Alcohols?
	14.3 What Are the Structures, Names, and Properties of Ethers?
	14.4 What Are the Structures, Names, and Properties of Thiols?
	14.5 What Are the Most Commercially Important Alcohols?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Summary of Key Reactions
	Problems
	14A: Nitroglycerin: An Explosive and a Drug
	14B: Breath-Alcohol Screening
	14C: Ethylene Oxide: A Chemical Sterilant
	14D: Ethers and Anesthesia
Chapter 15 Chirality: The Handedness of Molecules
	15.1 What Is Enantiomerism?
		How To... Draw Enantiomers
	15.2 How Do We Specify the Configuration of a Stereocenter?
	15.3 How Many Stereoisomers Are Possible for Molecules with Two or More Stereocenters?
	15.4 What Is Optical Activity, and How Is Chirality Detected in the Laboratory?
	15.5 What Is the Significance of Chirality in the Biological World?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	Chemical Connections
	15A: Chiral Drugs
Chapter 16 Amines
	16.1 What Are Amines?
	16.2 How Do We Name Amines?
	16.3 What Are the Physical Properties of Amines?
	16.4 How Do We Describe the Basicity of Amines?
	16.5 What are the Characteristic Reactions of Amines?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Summary of Key Reactions
	Problems
	Chemical Connections
	16A: Amphetamines (Pep Pills)
	16B: Alkaloids
	16C: Tranquilizers
	16D: The Solubility of Drugs in Body Fluids
	16E: Epinephrine: A Prototype for the Development of New Bronchodilators
Chapter 17 Aldehydes and Ketones
	17.1 What Are Aldehydes and Ketones
	17.2 How Do We Name Aldehydes and Ketones?
	17.3 What Are the Physical Properties of Aldehydes and Ketones?
	17.4 What Are the Characteristic Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones?
	17.5 What Is Keto-Enol Tautomerism?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Summary of Key Reactions
	Problems
	Chemical Connections
	17A: Some Naturally Occurring Aldehydes and Ketones
Chapter 18 Carboxylic Acids
	18.1 What Are Carboxylic Acids?
	18.2 How Do We Name Carboxylic Acids?
	18.3 What Are the Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids?
	18.4 What Are Soaps and Detergents?
	18.5 What Are the Characteristic Reactions of Carboxylic Acids?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Summary of Key Reactions
	Problems
	Chemical Connections
	18A: Trans Fatty Acid: What Are They and How Do You Avoid Them?
	18B: Esters as Flavoring Agents
	18C: Ketone Bodies and Diabetes
Chapter 19 Carboxylic Anhydrides, Esters, and Amides
	19.1 What Are Carboxylic Anhydrides, Esters, and Amides?
	19.2 How Do We Prepare Esters?
	19.3 How Do We Prepare Amides?
	19.4 What Are the Characteristic Reactions of Anhydrides, Esters, and Amides?
	19.5 What Are Phosphoric Anhydrides and Phosphoric Esters?
	19.6 What Is Step-Growth Polymerization?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Summary of Key Reactions
	Problems
	Chemical Connections
	19A: The Pyrethrins; Natural Insecticides of Plant Origins
	19B: The Penicillins and Cephalosporins: ß-Lactam Antibiotics
	19C: From Willow Bark to Aspirin and Beyond
	19D: Ultraviolet Sunscreens and Sunblocks
	19E: Barbiturates
	19F: Stitches That Dissolve
Chapter 20 Carbohydrates
	20.1 Carbohydrates: What Are Monosaccharides?
	20.2 What Are the Cyclic Structures of Monosaccharides?
	20.3 What Are the Characteristic Reactions of Monosaccharides?
	20.4 What Are Disaccharides and Oligosaccharides?
	20.5 What Are Polysaccharides?
	20.6 What Are Acidic Polysaccharides?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Summary of Key Reactions
	Problems
	Chemical Connections
	20A: Galactosemia
	20B: L-Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)
	20C: Testing for Glucose
	20D: A, B, AB, and O Blood Types
	20E: Life-Saving Carbohydrate Bandages
Chapter 21 Lipids
	21.1 What Are Lipids?
	21.2 What Are the Structures of Triglycerides?
	21.3 What Are Some Properties of Triglycerides?
	21.4 What Are the Structures of Complex Lipids?
	21.5 What Role Do Lipids Play in the Structure of Membranes?
	21.6 What Are Glycerophospholipids?
	21.7 What Are Sphingolipids?
	21.8 What Are Glycolipids?
	21.9 What Are Steroids?
	21.10 What Are Some of the Physiological Roles of Steroid Hormones?
	21.11 What Are Bile Salts?
	21.12 What Are Prostaglandins, Thromboxanes, and Leukotrienes?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	Chemical Connections
	21A: Rancidity
	21B: Waxes
	21C: Transport Across Cell Membranes
	21D: The Myelin Sheath and Multiple Sclerosis
	21E: Lipid Storage Diseases
	21F: Anabolic Steroids
	21G: Oral Contraception
	21H: Action of Anti-inflammatory Drugs
Chapter 22 Proteins
	22.1 What Are the Many Functions of Proteins?
	22.2 What Are Amino Acids?
	22.3 What Are Zwitterions?
	22.4 What Determines the Characteristics of Amino Acids?
	22.5 What Are Uncommon Amino Acids?
	22.6 How Do Amino Acids Combine to Form Proteins?
	22.7 What Are the Properties of Proteins?
	22.8 What Is the Primary Structure of a Protein?
	22.9 What Is the Secondary Structure of a Protein?
	22.10 What Is the Tertiary Structure of a Protein?
	22.11 What Is the Quaternary Structure of a Protein?
	22.12 How Are Proteins Denatured?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	Chemical Connections
	22A: Aspartame, the Sweet Peptide
	22B: AGE and Aging
	22C: The Use of Human Insulin
	22D: Sickle Cell Anemia
	22E: Protein/Peptide Conformation-Dependent Diseases
	22F: Proteomics, Ahoy!
	22G: Quaternary Structure and Allosteric Proteins
	22H: Laser Surgery and Protein Denaturation
Chapter 23 Enzymes
	23.1 What Are Enzymes?
	23.2 How Are Enzymes Named and Classified?
	23.3 What Is the Terminology Used with Enzymes?
	23.4 What Factors Influence Enzyme Activity?
	23.5 What Are the Mechanisms of Enzyme Action?
	23.6 How Are Enzymes Regulated?
	23.7 How Are Enzymes Used in Medicine?
	23.8 What Are Transition-State Analogs and Designer Enzymes?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	23A: Muscle Relaxants and Enzyme Speci. city
	23B: Enzymes and Memory
	23C: Active Sites
	23D: Medical Uses of Inhibitors
	23E: Glycogen Phosphorylase: A Model of Enzyme Regulation
	23F: One Enzyme, Two Functions
	23G: Catalytic Antibodies Against Cocaine
Chapter 24 Chemical Communications: Neurotransmitters and Hormones
	24.1 What Molecules Are Involved in Chemical Communications?
	24.2 How Are Chemical Messengers Classified as Neurotransmitters and Hormones?
	24.3 How Does Acetylcholine Act as a Messenger?
	24.4 What Amino Acids Act as Neurotransmitters?
	24.5 What Are Adrenergic Messengers?
	24.6 What Is the Role of Peptides in Chemical Communication?
	24.7 How Do Steroid Hormones Act as Messengers?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	Chemical Connections
	24A: Calcium as a Signaling Agent (Secondary Messenger)
	24B: Botulism and Acetylcholine Release
	24C: Alzheimer\'s Disease and Chemical Communication
	24D: Parkinson\'s Disease: Depletion of Dopamine
	24E: Nitric Oxide as a Secondary Messenger
	24F: Diabetes
	24G: Hormones and Biological Pollutants
Chapter 25 Nucleotides, Nucleic Acids, and Heredity
	25.1 What Are the Molecules of Heredity?
	25.2 What Are Nucleic Acids Made Of?
	25.3 What Is the Structure of DNA and RNA?
	25.4 What Are the Different Classes of RNA?
	25.5 What Are Genes?
	25.6 How Is DNA Replicated?
	25.7 How Is DNA Repaired?
	25.8 How Do We Amplify DNA?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	Chemical Connections
	25A: Anticancer Drugs
	25B: Telomeres, Telomerase, and Immortality
	25C: DNA Fingerprinting
	25D: The Human Genome Project: Treasure or Pandora\'s Box?
	25E: Pharmacogenomics: Tailoring Medicine to an Individual\'s Predispositions
Chapter 26 Gene Expression and Protein Synthesis
	26.1 How Does DNA Lead to RNA and Protein?
	26.2 How Is DNA Transcribed into RNA?
	26.3 What Is the Role of RNA in Translation?
	26.4 What Is the Genetic Code?
	26.5 How Is Protein Synthesized?
	26.6 How Are Genes Regulated?
	26.7 What Are Mutations?
	26.8 How and Why Do We Manipulate DNA?
	26.9 What Is Gene Therapy?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	Chemical Connections
	26A: Breaking the Dogma: The Twenty-First Amino Acid
	26B: Viruses
	26C: Mutations and Biochemical Evolution
	26D: Silent Mutations
	26E: p53: A Central Tumor Suppressor Protein
	26F: Human Diversity and Transcription Factors
Chapter 27 Bioenergetics: How the Body Converts Food to Energy
	27.1 What Is Metabolism?
	27.2 What Are Mitochondria, and What Role Do They Play in Metabolism?
	27.3 What Are the Principal Compounds of the Common Metabolic Pathway?
	27.4 What Role Does the Citric Acid Cycle Play in Metabolism?
	27.5 How Do Electron and H[sup(+)] Transport Take Place?
	27.6 What Is the Role of the Chemiosmotic Pump in ATP Production?
	27.7 What Is the Energy Yield Resulting from Electron and H[sup(+)] Transport?
	27.8 How Is Chemical Energy Converted to Other Forms of Energy?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	Chemical Connections
	27A: Uncoupling and Obesity
Chapter 28 Specific Catabolic Pathways: Carbohydrate, Lipid, and Protein Metabolism
	28.1 What Is the General Outline of Catabolic Pathways?
	28.2 What Are the Reactions of Glycolysis?
	28.3 What Is the Energy Yield From Glucose Catabolism?
	28.4 How Does Glycerol Catabolism Take Place?
	28.5 What Are the Reactions of b-Oxidation of Fatty Acids?
	28.6 What Is the Energy Yield from Stearic Acid Catabolism?
	28.7 What Are Ketone Bodies?
	28.8 How Is the Nitrogen of Amino Acids Processed in Carabolism?
	28.9 How Are the Carbon Skeletons of Amino Acids Processed in Catabolism?
	28.10 What Are the Reactions of Catabolism of Heme?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	Chemical Connections
	28A: Lactate Accumulation
	28B: Effects of Signal Transduction on Metabolism
	28C: Ketoacidosis in Diabetes
	28D: Hereditary Defects in Amino Acid Catabolism: PKU
Chapter 29 Biosynthetic Pathways
	29.1 What Is the General Outline of Biosynthetic Pathways?
	29.2 How Does the Biosynthesis of Carbohydrates Take Place?
	29.3 How Does the Biosynthesis of Fatty Acids Take Place?
	29.4 How Does the Biosynthesis of Membrane Lipids Take Place?
	29.5 How Does the Biosynthesis of Amino Acids Take Place?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	Chemical Connections
	29A: Photosynthesis
	29B: The Biological Basis of Obesity
	29C: Essential Amino Acids
Chapter 30 Nutrition
	30.1 How Do We Measure Nutrition?
	30.2 Why Do We Count Calories?
	30.3 How Does the Body Process Dietary Carbohydrates?
	30.4 How Does the Body Process Dietary Fats?
	30.5 How Does the Body Process Dietary Protein?
	30.6 What Is the Importance of Vitamins, Minerals, and Water?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	Chemical Connections
	30A: The New Food Guide Pyramid
	30B: Why Is It So Hard To Lose Weight?
	30C: Dieting and Artificial Sweeteners
	30D: Iron: An Example of a Mineral Requirement
	30E: Food for Performance Enhancement
	30F: Organic Food—Hope or Hype?
Chapter 31 Immunochemistry
	31.1 How Does the Body Defend Itself from Invasion?
	31.2 What Organs and Cells Make Up the Immune System?
	31.3 How Do the Antigens Stimulate the Immune System?
	31.4 What Are Immunoglobulins?
	31.5 What Are T Cells and T-Cell Receptors?
	31.6 How Is the Immune Response Controlled?
	31.7 How Does the Body Distinguish \"Self\" from \"Nonself\"?
	31.8 How Does the Human Immunodeficiency Virus Cause AIDS?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	Chemical Connections
	31A: The Mayapple and Chemotherapy Agents
	31B: Monoclonal Antibodies Wage War on Breast Cancer
	31C: Immunization
	31D: Antibiotics: A Double-Edged Sword
	31E: Why Are Stem Cells Special?
Appendix 1 Exponential Notation
Appendix 2 Significant Figures
Answers to In-Text and Odd-Numbered End-of-Chapter Problems
Glossary
Index