Introduction to Engineering Experimentation

Cover......Page 1
Contents......Page 4
Preface......Page 10
  1.1.1 Measurement in Engineering Experimentation......Page 12
 1.3 Dimensions and Units......Page 14
 Problems......Page 16
 2.1 Generalized Measurement System......Page 18
 2.2 Validity of Measurement......Page 19
  2.2.1 Measurement Error and Related Definitions......Page 20
  2.2.2 Calibration of Measurement Systems......Page 27
 2.3 Dynamic Measurements......Page 35
 References......Page 39
 Problems......Page 40
 3.1 Electrical Signal Measurement Systems......Page 47
 3.2 Signal Conditioners......Page 48
  3.2.1 General Characteristics of Signal Amplification......Page 49
  3.2.2 Amplifiers Using Operational Amplifiers......Page 55
  3.2.3 Signal Attenuation......Page 61
  3.2.4 General Aspects of Signal Filtering......Page 63
  3.2.5 Butterworth Filters Using Operational Amplifiers......Page 66
  3.2.6 Circuits for Integration, Differentiation, and Comparison......Page 70
  3.3.1 Digital Voltmeters and Multimeters......Page 71
  3.3.2 Oscilloscopes......Page 72
  3.3.3 Strip-Chart Recorders......Page 74
  3.4.1 Low-Level Analog Voltage Signal Transmission......Page 75
  3.4.3 Current-Loop Analog Signal Transmission......Page 78
 Problems......Page 79
 4.1 Introduction......Page 82
  4.2.1 Computer Systems for Data Acquisition......Page 83
  4.2.2 Components of Computer Systems......Page 84
  4.2.3 Representing Numbers in Computer Systems......Page 86
  4.3.1 Multiplexers......Page 89
  4.3.2 Basics of Analog-to-Digital Converters......Page 90
  4.3.3 Practical Analog-to-Digital Converters......Page 97
  4.3.4 Digital-to-Analog Converters......Page 101
  4.3.5 Simultaneous Sample-and-Hold Subsystems......Page 102
  4.4.2 External Systems......Page 103
  4.4.3 Digital Connectivity......Page 104
  4.4.4 Virtual Instruments......Page 105
  4.4.5 Digital Storage Oscilloscopes......Page 106
 4.5 Software for Data-Acquisition Systems......Page 108
 References......Page 109
 Problems......Page 110
 5.1 Sampling-Rate Theorem......Page 113
 5.2 Spectral Analysis of Time-Varying Signals......Page 118
 5.3 Spectral Analysis Using the Fourier Transform......Page 123
  5.4.1 Selecting the Sampling Rate......Page 130
  5.4.2 Use of Filtering to Limit Sampling Rate......Page 132
 References......Page 135
 Problems......Page 136
 6.1 Introduction......Page 139
  6.2.1 Definitions......Page 141
  6.2.2 Measures of Central Tendency......Page 143
  6.2.3 Measures of Dispersion......Page 144
 6.3 Probability......Page 145
  6.3.1 Probability Distribution Functions......Page 146
  6.3.2 Some Probability Distribution Functions with Engineering Applications......Page 150
 6.4 Parameter Estimation......Page 162
  6.4.1 Interval Estimation of the Population Mean......Page 163
  6.4.2 Interval Estimation of the Population Variance......Page 171
 6.5 Criterion for Rejecting Questionable Data Points......Page 174
  6.6.1 Correlation Coefficient......Page 176
  6.6.2 Least-Squares Linear Fit......Page 180
  6.6.3 Outliers in x–y Data Sets......Page 186
  6.6.4 Linear Regression Using Data Transformation......Page 189
  6.6.5 Multiple and Polynomial Regression......Page 191
 6.7 Linear Functions of Random Variables......Page 195
 References......Page 196
 Problems......Page 197
 7.2 Propagation of Uncertainties—General Considerations......Page 210
 7.3 Consideration of Systematic and Random Components of Uncertainty......Page 213
 7.4 Sources of Elemental Error......Page 220
 7.5 Uncertainty of the Final Results for Multiple-Measurement Experiments......Page 225
 7.6 Uncertainty of the Final Result for Single-Measurement Experiments......Page 229
 7.7 Step-by-Step Procedure for Uncertainty Analysis......Page 232
 7.8 Interpreting Manufacturers\' Uncertainty Data......Page 233
 7.9 Applying Uncertainty Analysis in Digital Data-Acquisition Systems......Page 234
 7.10 Additional Considerations for Single-Measurement Experiments......Page 238
 Problems......Page 241
  8.1.1 Electrical Resistance Strain Gage......Page 255
  8.1.2 Strain Gage Signal Conditioning......Page 260
  8.2.1 Potentiometer......Page 265
  8.2.2 Linear and Rotary Variable Differential Transformers......Page 266
  8.2.3 Capacitive Displacement Sensor......Page 270
  8.3.1 Linear Velocity Transducer......Page 272
  8.3.2 Doppler Radar Velocity Measurement......Page 273
  8.3.3 Velocity Determination Using Displacement and Acceleration Sensors......Page 274
  8.4.1 Electric Generator Tachometers......Page 275
  8.4.2 Magnetic Pickup......Page 276
  8.4.3 Stroboscopic Tachometer......Page 277
  8.5.1 Piezoelectric Accelerometers......Page 278
  8.5.2 Strain-Gage Accelerometers......Page 281
  8.5.4 Vibrometer......Page 282
  8.6.1 Load Cells......Page 283
  8.6.2 Proving Rings......Page 285
 8.7 Measuring Rotating Shaft Torque......Page 286
 References......Page 288
 Problems......Page 289
  9.1.1 Traditional Pressure-Measuring Devices......Page 295
  9.1.2 Pressure Transducers......Page 302
  9.1.3 Measuring a Vacuum......Page 304
  9.2.1 Thermocouples......Page 308
  9.2.2 Resistance-Temperature Detectors......Page 315
  9.2.3 Thermistor and Integrated-Circuit Temperature Sensors......Page 319
  9.2.4 Mechanical Temperature-Sensing Devices......Page 321
  9.2.5 Radiation Thermometers (Pyrometers)......Page 323
  9.2.6 Common Temperature-Measurement Errors......Page 326
  9.3.1 Hygrometric Devices......Page 332
  9.3.3 Psychrometric Devices......Page 333
  9.4.1 Optical Fiber......Page 335
  9.4.2 General Characteristics of Fiber-Optic Sensors......Page 337
  9.4.3 Fiber-Optic Displacement Sensors......Page 338
  9.4.4 Fiber-Optic Temperature Sensors......Page 339
  9.4.5 Fiber Optic Pressure Sensors......Page 341
 References......Page 342
 Problems......Page 343
  10.1.1 Pressure Differential Devices......Page 347
  10.1.2 Variable-Area Flowmeters......Page 363
  10.1.3 Turbine Flowmeters......Page 366
  10.1.4 Mass Flowmeters......Page 367
  10.1.6 Other Methods of Flow Measurement......Page 370
  10.1.7 Calibrating Flowmeters......Page 374
  10.2.1 Pitot-Static Probe......Page 375
  10.2.2 Hot-Wire and Hot-Film Anemometers......Page 377
  10.2.3 Fluid Velocity Measurement Using the Laser-Doppler Effect......Page 379
  10.3.1 Buoyancy Devices......Page 382
  10.3.2 Differential-Pressure Devices......Page 383
  10.3.3 Capacitance Devices......Page 384
  10.3.5 Ultrasonic Devices......Page 385
 10.4 Measuring Air Pollution Species......Page 386
  10.4.1 Nondispersive Infrared Detectors......Page 387
  10.4.2 Chemiluminescent Analyzers......Page 389
  10.4.3 Flame Ionization Detectors......Page 390
  10.4.5 General Considerations about Sampling and Measuring Pollutant Gases......Page 391
 References......Page 392
 Problems......Page 393
 11.1 Order of a Dynamic Measurement System......Page 398
 11.3 First-Order Measurement Systems......Page 399
  11.3.2 Step Input......Page 400
  11.3.3 Ramp Input......Page 401
  11.3.5 Thermocouple as a First-Order System......Page 403
  11.4.1 Basic Equations......Page 408
  11.4.2 Step Input......Page 409
  11.4.3 Sinusoidal Input......Page 411
  11.4.4 Force Transducer (Load Cell) as a Second-Order System......Page 412
  11.4.5 Pressure-Measurement Devices as Second-Order Systems......Page 415
  11.4.6 Second-Order Systems for Acceleration and Vibration......Page 424
 11.5 Closure......Page 428
 Problems......Page 429
  12.1.1 Problem Definition......Page 433
  12.1.3 Experiment Construction and Development......Page 434
  12.2.1 Dimensional Analysis and Determining the Test Rig Scale......Page 435
  12.2.3 Shakedown Tests......Page 439
  12.2.4 Test Matrix and Test Sequence......Page 440
  12.2.5 Scheduling and Cost Estimation......Page 444
  12.2.6 Design Review......Page 448
  12.2.7 Documenting Experimental Activities......Page 449
 References......Page 457
Answers to Selected Problems......Page 458
APPENDIX A: Computational Methods for Chapter 5......Page 461
APPENDIX B: Selected Properties of Substances......Page 464
 C......Page 469
 D......Page 470
 G......Page 471
 L......Page 472
 P......Page 473
 R......Page 474
 S......Page 475
 Z......Page 476
 D......Page 477
 G......Page 478
 P......Page 479
 S......Page 480
 Z......Page 481