Introduction to Cyber Forensic Psychology: Understanding the Mind of the Cyber Deviant Perpetrators

Contents
Acknowledgements
About the Editors
About the Contributors
Part 1: Introduction
	Introduction to Cyber Forensic Psychology
		1 The Blooming Internet and Technological Ecosystem
		2 The Dark Side of the Cyberspace
		3 The Need to Regulate and Control the Cyberspace
			3.1 Local measures to counter cybercrime
		4 Moving Beyond Technological and Legal Solutions: The Role of Behavioural Sciences
		5 Part 2: Cyber Crimes and Cyber Enabled Crimes
			5.1 Violent and deviant behaviours online
			5.2 Sexual and deviant behaviours online
			5.3 Hate Crimes Online
			5.4 Cyber fraud and scams
		6 Part 3: Assessment, Intervention, and Prevention
			6.1 Insights for assessment, prevention, and intervention
			6.2 The future of cybersecurity
			6.3 Special chapter on sexting in Singapore
			6.4 Concluding chapter
		7 Conclusion
		8 Acknowledgement
		9 References
Part 2: Cyber Crimes and Cyber Enabled Crimes—Introduction to Emerging Issues
	Section A: Violent and Deviant Behaviours Online
		Chapter 1 Influence of Social Media on Deviant Acts: A Closer Examination of Live-Streamed Crimes
			1.1 Introduction
			1.2 Live-streamed Crime may Involve Performance Crime
			1.3 The Diverse Nature of Live-streamed Crimes
			1.4 Perpetrators Turned to Live-streamed Crimes for Diverse Reasons
				1.4.1 Lucrative modus operandi for cyber-facilitated criminality
				1.4.2 Accessible means of self-expression without regulation
				1.4.3 An added channel to gain control or obtain sexual gratification
				1.4.4 Live-streaming usage as part of one’s digital and sociocultural lifestyle
			1.5 Live-Streamed Crime Illustrates How Social Media has Transformed Crime and Crime Investigation
				1.5.1 Digital evidence of live-streamed crime is fluid, multi-directional, and owned by many
				1.5.2 Viewers have transitioned from passive audiences to active abettors of the crime
				1.5.3 Delay between production and distribution of live-streamed contents is almost non-existent
			1.6 There are Multiple Ways We Can Respond to, Combat, and Prevent Live-streamed Crimes
				1.6.1 Law enforcement to enhance efforts on cyber surveillance and risk management
				1.6.2 Law enforcement to collaborate with digital platforms and firms
				1.6.3 Government to enhance efforts to raise public awareness, vigilance, and reporting amongst the online community
				1.6.4 Researchers and academia to conduct further research to gain greater insights on live-streamed crime
				1.6.5 Law enforcement to introduce more targeted crime prevention efforts
			1.7 Conclusion
			1.8 Acknowledgement
			1.9 References
		Chapter 2 Hidden but Deadly: Stalkerware Usage in Intimate Partner Stalking
			2.1 Introduction
				2.1.1 The call to look at Technology misuse in intimate partner stalking
			2.2 The Rise of Stalkerware as the Ultimate Stalking Tool
				2.2.1 Defining spyware, stalkerware, and dual-use technology
				2.2.2 Stalkerware’s invasive capabilities
			2.3 Growing Global Trends of Stalkerware in IPS
				2.3.1 Major studies conducted on stalkerware prevalence: The 2013 SmartSafe project and the 2015 ReCharge survey
				2.3.2 Usage trends in UK and USA
				2.3.3 Distributions and download trends in global online stores
			2.4 Mindset of the Stalkerware Perpetrator
				2.4.1 Unhealthy attachment styles
				2.4.2 The need for coercive control
				2.4.3 Use of moral disengagement to perpetuate the act
			2.5 Alleviating the Harm: Barriers and Recommendations
				2.5.1 Overcome victim-blaming
					2.5.1.1 Recommendations to overcome victim-blaming
				2.5.2 Help victims to tackle proxy stalking
					2.5.2.1 Recommendations to help victims to tackle proxy stalking
				2.5.3 Improve detection by anti-spyware
					2.5.3.1 Recommendations to improve detection by anti-spyware
				2.5.4 In sum: A concerted effort by all stakeholders
			2.6 Conclusion
			2.7 Acknowledgement
			2.8 References
		Chapter 3 Digital Self-Harm: A Peek into the Mind of an Online Self-Aggressor
			3.1 Introduction
			3.2 Past Studies on Digital Self-Harm
				3.2.1 Prevalence
				3.2.2 Motivations
				3.2.3 Significant factors associated with digital self-harm
			3.3 Understanding Digital Self-Harm
				3.3.1 Anonymity and disinhibition in cyberspace facilitate digital self-harm
				3.3.2 Digital self-harm as an indirect mean to evaluate one’s self-concept through online peer feedback
				3.3.3 Digital self-harm as a form of anonymous disclosure of one’s negative perception of self
				3.3.4 The presence and permissibility of the peer norm of cyberbullying may encourage digital self-harm
				3.3.5 Digital self-harm as a maladaptive form of coping that is self-reinforcing
				3.3.6 Online trend of receiving positive affirmation after public displays of resilience may promote digital self-harm
			3.4 Responding to Digital Self-Harm
				3.4.1 Social media and tech companies
				3.4.2 School and mental health professionals
				3.4.3 Parents at home
				3.4.4 Law enforcement and investigators
			3.5 Conclusion
			3.6 Acknowledgement
			3.7 References
	Section B: Sexual and Deviant Behaviours Online
		Chapter 4 Cyber Sexual Deviance: Delving into Image-Based Sexual Abuse
			4.1 Introduction to Cyber Sexual Deviant Behaviour
				4.1.1 What is image-based sexual abuse?
			4.2 The Prevalence of Image-Based Sexual Abuse
			4.3 Driving Factors for Perpetrators of Image-Based Sexual Abuse
				4.3.1 Perceived benefit of IBSA #1: Alleviating grievance and revenge
				4.3.2 Perceived benefit of IBSA #2: Financial gain
					4.3.2.1 Financial gain through advertising means
					4.3.2.2 Financial gain through direct sales of non-consensual sexual materials
					4.3.2.3 Financial gain through extortion of money from victims
				4.3.3 Perceived benefit of IBSA #3: Gaining social reinforcement
				4.3.4 Perceived benefit of IBSA #4: Sexual gratification
				4.3.5 Perceived benefit of IBSA #5: Sense of power
				4.3.6 Perceived costs of IBSA
			4.4 The Impact of Image-Based Sexual Abuse
				4.4.1 Reputational damage
				4.4.2 Threat to personal safety
				4.4.3 Mental health issues
			4.5 How can we Mitigate the Prevalence of IBSA?
				4.5.1 Identifying emerging trends in IBSA
				4.5.2 System-centric mitigation
				4.5.3 Person-centric mitigation
			4.6 Conclusion
			4.7 Acknowledgement
			4.8 References
	Section C: Hate Crimes Online
		Chapter 5 “Is Technology Making You Prejudiced?”: How Technology is Enabling Hate IRL
			5.1 Introduction
			5.2 The Online Environment Encourages People to be Disinhibited and Thus More Likely to Express Cyberhate
			5.3 Cyber Perpetrators Utilise Algorithms to Reinforce Prejudicial Beliefs
			5.4 Online Communities are Echo-Chambers where Biased Beliefs are Reinforced
			5.5 The Cyber World Provides a Platform to Commit Offline Hate
			5.6 Interventions
				5.6.1 Leverage on technology and technological companies to reduce user susceptibility to cyberhate
				5.6.2 Implementing laws and policies that target biased algorithms
				5.6.3 Reducing impulsive acts and creating a safe online space
				5.6.4 Encourage users to be critical and aware
			5.7 Conclusion
			5.8 Acknowledgement
			5.9 References
		Chapter 6 Rebellion Against the State: A Social Perspective on How the Online Space Fuels Collective Action
			6.1 Introduction
			6.2 The Role of Identity and Motivation: A Dual-Pathway Perspective
				6.2.1 How the online space ignites politicised collective identity
				6.2.2 How the online space proliferates collective action
				6.2.3 Effects of the internet on group efficacy
				6.2.4 Effects of the internet on expectancies of collective action
			6.3 Harnessing the Energy of an Engaged Citizenry
				6.3.1 Online sentiment analysis as a diagnostic tool
				6.3.2 Surveys and dialogues as diagnostic tools
				6.3.3 Clear and transparent communication channels as intervention tools
				6.3.4 A final note on interventions
			6.4 Conclusion
			6.5 Acknowledgement
			6.6 References
		Chapter 7 Victim and the Cyber Vigilante: An Additional Perspective on Cyber Vigilantism
			7.1 Introduction
			7.2 Use of Cyber Vigilantism by Victims of Sexual Harassment and Assault
				7.2.1 International influences
				7.2.2 Cyber vigilantism and empowerment of victims of sexual harassment and assault
			7.3 Use of Cyber Vigilantism by Other Individuals in the Context of Sexual Harassment and Assault
			7.4 Potential Concerns Arising from the Adoption of Cyber Vigilante Behaviours
			7.5 Points for Further Thought and Deliberation
				7.5.1 Accounting for victims and victim empowerment
				7.5.2 Public perception of rehabilitative practices
				7.5.3 Channelling public participation
			7.6 Conclusion
			7.7 Acknowledgement
			7.8 References
		Chapter 8 Understanding the Growing Prevalence of Information Operations on Social Media
			8.1 Introduction
				8.1.1 Conditions that enabled IO to flourish
				8.1.2 The recent successes of IO emboldening other actors
				8.1.3 Existing social fault lines and identity politics practices
			8.2 The Conduct of IO Enabling Actors with Different Motivations to Fulfil their Goals/Aims
			8.3 Social Media Strategies, Tools, and Techniques Used by IO Actors
				8.3.1 Impersonation tactics: Masking identities with fake accounts
				8.3.2 Amassing accounts for the conduct of IO
			8.4 Implications
				8.4.1 Build capacity in the public to resist IO
				8.4.2 Transparency measures to hinder IO actors
			8.5 Acknowledgement
			8.6 References
	Section D: Cyber Fraud and Scams
		Chapter 9 Love Cheats: The Psychology of Love Scams
			9.1 Introduction
			9.2 How do Love Scams Work?
			9.3 The Internet: A Conducive Environment for Love and Crime
			9.4 Psychologically Persuasive Tactics
			9.5 Risk Factors the Render Victims Vulnerable
			9.6 Scam Prevention and Interventions
				9.6.1 Public education on love scams
				9.6.2 Automatic detection of fake scam profiles
				9.6.3 Involve industrial partners in crime prevention
				9.6.4 Educate support networks about the significant emotional distress experienced by scam victims
			9.7 Conclusion
			9.8 Acknowledgement
			9.9 References
		Chapter 10 Cybercrime and Scams Amidst COVID-19: A Review of the Human Vulnerabilities Exploited During a Global Pandemic
			10.1 Introduction
			10.2 Our Fear Causes Us to Be Susceptible to Cybercrime
				10.2.1 Fear: Uncertainty
					10.2.1.1 Fake news
					10.2.1.2 Phony websites
					10.2.1.3 Phishing scams
					10.2.1.4 Malware dissemination
				10.2.2 Fear: Loss of control
					10.2.2.1 E-Commerce scam
				10.2.3 Fear: Law-abiding tendency
					10.2.3.1 Smishing & Phishing scams (revisited)
					10.2.3.2 Contact tracing scam
			10.3 Our Altruistic Acts May Be Abused by Others
				10.3.1 Micro-level altruism
					10.3.1.1 Personal donation scams
					10.3.1.2 E-Commerce scams (revisited)
				10.3.2 Macro-level altruism
					10.3.2.1 Public donation scams
					10.3.2.2 Contact tracing scam (revisited)
			10.4 Our Desire for More May Cost Us Even More
				10.4.1 Investment fraud
			10.5 Recommendations
				10.5.1 Leverage on reliable and recognisable information-providing channels
				10.5.2 Employ a diversity of public messaging formats
				10.5.3 Proactive intervention by multiple parties
			10.6 Conclusion
			10.7 Acknowledgement
			10.8 References
Part 3: Assessment, Intervention, and Prevention
	Section E: Insights for Assessment, Prevention, and Intervention
		Chapter 11 Legal Issues and Ethical Considerations in Cyber Forensic Psychology
			11.1 Introduction
				11.1.1 The case of Gary McKinnon
			11.2 Scope and Definitions
			11.3 Using Forensic Psychology to Respond to Cybercrime
				11.3.1 Different aspects of cybercrime
				11.3.2 Review of psychological research on cybercrimes
			11.4 Using Cyber Tools to Enhance Forensic Psychology
				11.4.1 Legal and ethical issues in data collection
				11.4.2 Data collection at crime scenes
			11.5 Use of Forensic Psychology in Preventing Cybercrime
				11.5.1 Psychology of the victim (the “suitable target” or the “guardian”)
				11.5.2 Diversion of the “motivated offender”
				11.5.3 Predictive policing
			11.6 Role of Cyber Forensic Psychology Evidence at Trial and Sentencing
			11.7 Recommendations
			11.8 References
		Chapter 12 Optimise Defender’s Advantage: Practical Approaches for Cybersecurity Defence
			12.1 Introduction
			12.2 Digitalisation of Companies, Cities and Government
				12.2.1 Cloud
				12.2.2 Internet of things
			12.3 Cyber-Attacks
				12.3.1 Desire to adopt latest technologies
				12.3.2 Lack of clarity in usage of cybersecurity technology
				12.3.3 Limited cybersecurity manpower
				12.3.4 Open-source and publicly available offensive tools and techniques
			12.4 Approaches to Optimise Defender’s Advantage
				12.4.1 Built-in end to end security defences—architecture and operating for digital age
				12.4.2 Adopt fit-for-purpose security technologies to secure the enterprise effectively
				12.4.3 Leveraging open-source technologies for defence
			12.5 Conclusion
			12.6 References
		Chapter 13 Hacking the Hacker’s Psyche
			13.1 Introduction
			13.2 Who are Hackers?
				13.2.1 Online psychopathy
			13.3 How are Hackers Recruited?
			13.4 Developmental Pathway of Young Hackers
			13.5 Hacker’s Manifesto and Culture
				13.5.1 Hacker’s hangouts
				13.5.2 Collaborations between secular hackers and hackers for violent groups
			13.6 Conclusion
			13.7 Acknowledgement
			13.8 References
		Chapter 14 Humans as the Weakest Link in Maintaining Cybersecurity: Building Cyber Resilience in Humans
			14.1 Introduction
			14.2 Human Behaviours as the Weakest Link in Cybersecurity
			14.3 Understanding Human-Centric Measures
				14.3.1 Importance of good cyber hygiene to manage cyber threats
				14.3.2 The value of cyber hygiene behaviours
			14.4 Awareness Does Not Equate to Increased Frequency of Cyber Hygiene Practices
				14.4.1 Understanding poor online behaviours based on insights from cyber hygiene surveys
			14.5 There Are Many Psychological Reasons for Inaction of Cyber Hygiene Practices
				14.5.1 Lack of individual responsibility
				14.5.2 Low cyber risk perception and complacency
				14.5.3 Reduced usability security as trade off
				14.5.4 Difficulty in learning and implementing good cyber hygiene habits
				14.5.5 Lack of others who are also engaging in cyber hygiene practices
			14.6 Implications for Designing a Human-Centric Approach to Combat Cyber Threats
				14.6.1 Public awareness efforts on cyber threats and cyber hygiene practices must continue
				14.6.2 Tailor outreach messages
				14.6.3 The need to nudge humans to engage in cyber hygiene practices
				14.6.4 Conduct red-teaming exercises
				14.6.5 Regulations to ensure compliance to cyber hygiene practices
			14.7 Conclusion
			14.8 Acknowledgement
			14.9 References
	Section F: The Future of Cybersecurity
		Chapter 15 Smart Homes: Where Rogue AI and Robots could Impair Security
			15.1 Introduction
			15.2 Cyber Threats Involving Smart Homes
				15.2.1 Key Point #1: Why fear machine havoc in smart homes?
				15.2.2 Key Point #2: AI and robots as agents of harm
				15.2.3 Key Point #3: Motivations of threat actors
				15.2.4 Key Point #4: Smart homes are the door to a country’s centre of gravity
				15.2.5 Key Point #5: Smart homes, human rights, and basic needs
			15.3 Defence Approaches for Smart Homes
				15.3.1 Approach #1: Deterrence by disruption
				15.3.2 Approach #2: Deterrence by denial
			15.4 Conclusion
			15.5 Acknowledgement
			15.6 References
		Chapter 16 Understanding and Mitigating the Risk of Hackercide
			16.1 Introduction
			16.2 Hackercide
				16.2.1 Hacking of smart cars
				16.2.2 Hacking of medical devices
				16.2.3 No reported attacks so far
			16.3 Potential Mitigating Approaches to Counter the Threat Posed by Hackercide: Singapore as a Case Study
				16.3.1 The need to address psychological vulnerabilities in human behaviour
				16.3.2 The need to raise cyber hygiene practices
				16.3.3 Making security part of the design of IoT
				16.3.4 Proactive advancement of law enforcement training and legislation
			16.4 Conclusion
			16.5 Acknowledgement
			16.6 References
	Section G: Special Chapter
		Chapter 17 Sexting in Singapore: An Empirical Study
			17.1 Introduction
			17.2 What is Sexting?
				17.2.1 The importance of understanding the phenomenon of sexting
			17.3 Understanding Sexting in Singapore
			17.4 Sexting Behaviours in the Local Singapore Setting
			17.5 Implications
				17.5.1 Many reported receiving sexts more than sending one
				17.5.2 Sexting is more common and frequent than expected
				17.5.3 Sexting is common amongst those in a relationship
				17.5.4 Males are more likely to be perpetrators of sexting, etc.
			17.6 Psychosocial Risk and Protective Factors of Sexting
				17.6.1 Dispositional factors related to sexting
					17.6.1.1 Histrionic personality
					17.6.1.2 Sensation seeking
					17.6.1.3 Attachment anxiety
					17.6.1.4 Religiosity
				17.6.2 Cognitive factors related to sexting
					17.6.2.1 Attitudes toward sexting
					17.6.2.2 Resistance to peer pressure
					17.6.2.3 Knowledge of sexting
			17.7 Social Factors
				17.7.1 Perceived subjective norms
				17.7.2 Family support
			17.8 Psychosocial Framework for Sexting: Exploring the Relationship Between Intention and Behaviours for Sexting
				17.8.1 Intention to sext
				17.8.2 Attitudes (positive) towards sexting
				17.8.3 Histrionic personality (seductiveness)
				17.8.4 ‘Sensation seeking’ (intensity)
			17.9 Implications
			17.10 Conclusion
			17.11 Acknowledgement
			17.12 References
Part 4: Conclusion
	Chapter 18 The Future of Cyber-Forensic Psychology: How to Prepare
		18.1 Introduction
		18.2 Recommendations
			18.2.1 Make the building of cyber resilience in our communities a priority
			18.2.2 Governments must invest in cyber-forensic psychology and psychologists
			18.2.3 Psychology departments must teach cyber psychology
			18.2.4 Crime prevention departments must appreciate the cyber frame and adopt a calibrated outreach strategy
			18.2.5 We need to refine traditional criminology theories
			18.2.6 Build private-public partnerships to fight cybercrime
		18.3 Acknowledgement
		18.4 References