Introduction to Criminology: Why Do They Do It?

Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Authors
Chapter 1: Introduction to Criminology
	• Case Study: The “Confidence Man”
	Introduction
	What Is a Crime?
	What Are Criminology and Criminal Justice?
	The Consensus and Conflict Perspectives of Crime
	• Learning Check 1.1
	The Criminal Justice System
		Law Enforcement
		Courts
		Corrections
		The Juvenile Justice System
	• Learning Check 1.2
	Criminological Theory
	• Applying Theory to Crime: Motor-Vehicle Theft
		Five Characteristics of Good Theories
	• Learning Check 1.3
		Three Requirements for Determining Causality
	• Why Do They Do It? David and Louise Turpin
		Theory Informs Policies and Programs
	• Victimology
		Victim Precipitation
		The Incidence/Prevalence of Victimization
		Child Abuse and Neglect
		Compensation and Restitution
		Victim Impact Statements
	• Learning Check 1.4
		Victim Rights Awareness
	Conclusion
	Key Terms
	Discussion Questions
	Resources
Chapter 2: Measuring Crime
	• Case Study: September 11, 2001, Victims
	Introduction
	Data From Law Enforcement Agencies
		Uniform Crime Reports
			Historical Overview
			The Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program
			Limitations
	• Why Do They Do It? An Unusual DUI Offense; Dead Man’s Parrot a Key Witness?; Lottery Winner Arrested; Burglar Can’t Escape the Escape Room
	• Learning Check 2.1
		Supplementary Homicide Reports (SHR)
		The National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS)
			Data Collection
			Limitations
		Hate Crime Data
		Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted (LEOKA) Statistics
	Data From Victims of Crime: The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)
	• Learning Check 2.2
		Limitations
		Comparing the NCVS With Uniform Crime Reports
	Data From Self-Report Surveys
		Monitoring the Future (MTF)
		The National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH)
		National Youth Survey—Family Study
	Additional Approaches to Collecting Data
		The National Prisoner Statistics (NPS) Program
	• Applying Theory to Crime: Hate Crime
		Spatial Analyses of Crime
	• Learning Check 2.3
	Conclusion
	Key Terms
	Discussion Questions
	Resources
Chapter 3: The Classical School of Criminological Thought
	• Case Study: Robert Seman, Jr.
	Introduction
	Pre-Classical Perspectives on Crime and Punishment
	The Age of Enlightenment
	• Learning Check 3.1
	The Classical School of Criminology
		Influences on Beccaria and His Writings
		Beccaria’s Proposed Reforms and Ideas of Justice
		Beccaria’s Ideas of the Death Penalty
		Beccaria’s Concept of Deterrence and the Three Key Elements of Punishment
			Swiftness of Punishment
	• Learning Check 3.2
		Certainty of Punishment
		Severity of Punishment
		Beccaria’s Conceptualization of Specific and General Deterrence
		Summary of Beccaria’s Ideas and Influence on Policy
	• Learning Check 3.3
	The Impact of Beccaria’s Work on Other Theorists
	The Neoclassical School of Criminology
	• Why Do They Do It? The Harpe Brothers
	• Applying Theory to Crime: Other Assaults (Simple)
	The Decline of Classical/Neoclassical Theory
	Policy Implications
	Conclusion
	Summary of Theories
	Key Terms
	Discussion Questions
	Resources
Chapter 4: Contemporary Classical and Deterrence Research
	• Case Study: The Murder of Kristen Crowley
	Introduction
	The Rebirth of Deterrence Theory and Contemporary Research
		The Four Waves of Modern Deterrence Research
			Aggregate Studies
			Cross-Sectional Studies
			Longitudinal Studies
			Scenario/Vignette Studies
		Formal Versus Informal Deterrence
	Rational Choice Theory
	• Learning Check 4.1
	• Applying Theory to Crime: Driving Under the Influence
	Routine Activities Theory
		The Three Elements of Routine Activities Theory
			Motivated Offender
			Suitable Targets
			Lack of Guardianship
		Applications of Routine Activities Theory
			The Minneapolis Hot Spots Study
			Crime Mapping and Geographic Profiling
			The Lifestyles Perspective
	• Learning Check 4.2
	Policy Implications
	• Why Do They Do It? The Green River Killer
	Conclusion
	Summary of Theories
	Key Terms
	Discussion Questions
	Resources
Chapter 5: Early Positivism: Biological Theories of Crime
	• Case Study: John Lotter, the “Boys Don’t Cry” Killer
	Introduction
	Early Biological Theories of Behavior
		Craniometry
		Phrenology
		Physiognomy
	Lombroso’s Theory of Atavism and Born Criminals
		Lombroso’s Theory of Crime
		Lombroso’s List of Stigmata
		Lombroso as the Father of Criminology and the Father of the Positive School
	• Learning Check 5.1
		Policy Implications
	• Why Do They Do It? Dr. Harold Shipman
	• Learning Check 5.2
	After Lombroso: The IQ-Testing Era
		Goddard’s IQ Test
		Policy Implications
		Reexamining Intelligence
		Body-Type Theory: Sheldon’s Model of Somatotyping
	• Applying Theory to Crime: Burglary
	• Learning Check 5.3
	• Learning Check 5.4
	Policy Implications
	Conclusion
	Summary of Theories
	Key Terms
	Discussion Questions
	Resources
Chapter 6: Modern Biosocial Perspectives of Criminal Behavior
	• Case Study: The Spahalski Brothers
	Introduction
	Nature Versus Nurture: Studies Examining the Influence of Genetics and Environment
		Family Studies
		Twin Studies
	• Learning Check 6.1
		Adoption Studies
		Twins Separated at Birth
	• Learning Check 6.2
	Cytogenetic Studies: The XYY Factor
	Hormones and Neurotransmitters: Chemicals That Determine Criminal Behavior
	• Applying Theory to Crime: Aggravated Assault
	Brain Injuries
	• Learning Check 6.3
	Central Versus Autonomic Nervous System Activity
	• Why Do They Do It? Charles Whitman
	• Learning Check 6.4
	Biosocial Approaches to Explaining Criminal Behavior
		Behavioral Genetics Studies
		Diet/Nutrition
		Toxins
	• Case Study Revisited: The Spahalski Brothers
	Policy Implications
	Conclusion
	Summary of Theories
	Key Terms
	Discussion Questions
	Resources
Chapter 7: Psychological/Trait Theories of Crime
	• Case Study: Joel Michael Guy, Jr.
	Introduction
	Early Psychological Theorizing Regarding Criminal Behavior
		Freud’s Model of the Psyche and Implications for Criminal Behavior
		Hans Eysenck: Theory of Crime and Personality
		Lawrence Kohlberg: Moral Development
			Heinz’s Dilemma
		John Bowlby: Attachment Theory
	Modern Psychological Perspectives of Criminality
		IQ and Criminal Behavior
	• Example Case History: Derek B.
	• Learning Check 7.1
		James Q. Wilson and Richard J. Herrnstein: Crime and Human Nature
	• Applying Theory to Crime: Rape
		Psychopathy and Crime
	Mental Health and the Criminal Justice System
	• Learning Check 7.2
		Treatment
	• Why Do They Do It? Ariel Castro
		Mental-Health Courts
		The Insanity Defense
			The M’Naghten Rule
			The Irresistible-Impulse Test
			The Durham Rule
			The American Law Institute’s Model Penal Code
	Policy Implications
	• Learning Check 7.3
	Conclusion
	Summary of Theories
	Key Terms
	Discussion Questions
	Resources
Chapter 8: Social Structure Theories of Crime I: Early Development and Strain Models of Crime
	• Case Study: The Black-Binder Bandit
	Introduction
	Early European Theorists of Social Structure: Comte, Guerry, and Quetelet
	Durkheim and the Concept of Anomie
	• Learning Check 8.1
	• Learning Check 8.2
	Merton’s Strain Theory
		Cultural Context and Assumptions of Strain Theory
			Merton’s Concept of Anomie and Strain
			Adaptations to Strain
	• Learning Check 8.3
		Evidence and Criticisms of Merton’s Strain Theory
	Variations of Merton’s Strain Theory
		Cohen’s Theory of Lower-Class Status Frustration and Gang Formation
		Cloward and Ohlin’s Theory of Differential Opportunity
	General Strain Theory
	• Why Do They Do It? Christopher Dorner
	• Learning Check 8.4
	Summary of Strain Theories
	• Why Do They Do It? Gang Lu
	• Applying Theory to Crime: Bank Robbery
	Policy Implications
	Conclusion
	Summary of Theories
	Key Terms
	Discussion Questions
	Resources
Chapter 9: Social Structure Theories of Crime II: Social Disorganization and Subcultures
	• Case Study: Fraternity Members Charged With Engaging in Alcohol Enemas
	Introduction
	The Ecological School and the Chicago School of Criminology
		Cultural Context: Chicago in the 1800s and Early 1900s
		Ecological Principles in City Growth and Concentric Circles
		Shaw and McKay’s Theory of Social Disorganization
		• Learning Check 9.1
		Reactions and Research
	• Applying Theory to Crime: Stalking
	Cultural and Subcultural Theories of Crime
		Early Theoretical Developments and Research in Cultural/Subcultural Theory
	• Learning Check 9.2
		Disparities of Race in Regard to Subcultural Theories of Crime
		Criticism
	Policy Implications
	• Why Do They Do It? Whitey Bulger
	Conclusion
	Summary of Theories
	Key Terms
	Discussion Questions
	Resources
Chapter 10: Social Process and Control Theories of Crime
	• Case Study: The Bogles
	Introduction
	Learning Theories
		Differential Association Theory
			Elements of Differential Association Theory
			Classical Conditioning
			Reactions to Differential Association Theory
			Glaser’s Concept of Differential Identification
	• Learning Check 10.1
		Differential Reinforcement Theory
			Elements
			Propositions
		Psychological Learning Models
			Operant Conditioning
	• Applying Theory to Crime: Murder
		Bandura’s Theory of Imitation/Modeling
		Reactions to Differential Reinforcement Theory
		Neutralization Theory
			Techniques of Neutralization
	• Learning Check 10.2
		Reactions to Neutralization Theory
	Control Theories
		Thomas Hobbes’s Social Contract
		Émile Durkheim’s Idea of Collective Conscience
		Freud’s Concept of the Id and Superego
		Early Social Control Theories of Crime
			Reiss’s Control Theory
			Toby’s Concept of Stake in Conformity
			Nye’s Control Theory
			Reckless’s Containment Theory
		Modern Social Control Theories of Crime
			Matza’s Drift Theory
			Hirschi’s Social Bonding Theory
		Integrated Social Control Theories
			Tittle’s Control-Balance Theory
			Hagan’s Power-Control Theory
	A General Theory of Crime: Low Self-Control
		Psychological Aspects
		Physiological Aspects
	• Learning Check 10.3
	Policy Implications
	• Why Do They Do It? Jesse Pomeroy
	Conclusion
	Summary of Theories
	Key Terms
	Discussion Questions
	Resources
Chapter 11: Labeling Theory and Conflict/Marxist/Radical Theories of Crime
	• Case Study: The Flint Water Crisis
	Introduction
	Labeling Theory
		Foundation
			Frank Tannenbaum: The Dramatization of Evil
			Edwin M. Lemert: Primary and Secondary Deviance
			Howard S. Becker: The Dimensions of Deviance
			Edwin M. Schur: Defining Deviance
		Basic Assumptions
	• Learning Check 11.1
		Research
	• Why Do They Do It? The Murder of Dawn Hamilton
		Critiques
	Conflict Perspectives
	• Applying Theory to Crime: Larceny-Theft
		Conservative (Pluralist) Conflict Perspectives
			George Vold: Group Conflict Theory
			Austin Turk: The Power to Define Criminal Behavior
			Richard Quinney: The Social Reality of Crime
	• Learning Check 11.2
		Radical Conflict Perspectives
			Marxist Criminology
			William Chambliss and Robert Seidman on the U.S. Criminal Justice System
		Additional Explanations of Crime Using a Marxist Framework
			Colvin and Pauly’s Integrated Structural-Marxist Theory
			Herman and Julia Siegel Schwendinger on Adolescent Subcultures
			Steven Spitzer on Problem Populations
	• Learning Check 11.3
		Research
		Critiques
	Additional Critical Theories
		Peacemaking Criminology
		The Restorative Justice Perspective
		Left Realism
	Policy Implications
	Conclusion
	Summary of Theories
	Key Terms
	Discussion Questions
	Resources
Chapter 12: Feminist Theories of Crime
	• Case Study: Gertrude Baniszewski
	Introduction
	A Brief History of Feminism in the United States
		Key Terms
	Feminist Perspectives on Gender
	• Learning Check 12.1
		The Traditional or Conservative Perspective
		Liberal Feminism
		Radical Feminism
		Marxist and Socialist Feminism
		Postmodern Feminism
	• Learning Check 12.2
		Additional Feminist Perspectives
	Traditional Theories of Female Crime
		Cesare Lombroso: Physical Attributes of Female Offenders
		William I. Thomas: The Biology of Female Offending
		Sigmund Freud: Female Inferiority
		Otto Pollak: Hidden Female Criminality
	• Learning Check 12.3
		Feminist Critiques of Previous Studies of Women and Crime
	The Liberation Thesis
	• Applying Theory to Crime: Female Sex Offenders
	Power-Control Theory
	Feminist Perspectives on Crime and Criminal Behavior
	• Why Do They Do It? Lavinia Fisher
		Objectivity and Subjectivity
		Qualitative “Versus” Quantitative Analyses
		Feminist Criminology
	Critiques of Feminist Theories
	• Learning Check 12.4
	Policies Based on Feminist Theories of Crime
	Conclusion
	Summary of Theories
	Key Terms
	Discussion Questions
	Resources
Chapter 13: Developmental/Life-Course Perspectives on Criminality
	• Case Study: The Teen Burglar
	Introduction
	Basic Concepts and Early Developmental Theory
	Antidevelopmental Theory: Low-Self-Control Theory
	• Learning Check 13.1
	Sampson and Laub’s Developmental Model
	Moffitt’s Developmental Taxonomy
	• Why Do They Do It? Henry Earl
	Thornberry’s Interactional Model of Offending
	Applying Theory to Crime: Arson
		Case Study
		Empirical Evidence
	• Learning Check 13.2
	Policy Implications
	Conclusion
	Summary of Theories
	Key Terms
	Discussion Questions
	Resources
Chapter 14: White-Collar Crime, Organized Crime, and Cybercrime
	• Case Study: William T. Walters
	Introduction
	White-Collar Crime
		Definitions and History
	• Learning Check 14.1
		Incidence and Impact on Society
			Economic Costs
	• Why Do They Do It? Enron
		Physical Costs
		Breakdown in Social Fabric
		Types of White-Collar Crime
			Crimes Against the Environment
	• Learning Check 14.2
		Labor Violations
		Theoretical Explanations
	• Applying Theory to Crime: White-Collar Crime
	Organized Crime
		Definition
		The Historical Context of Organized Crime in the United States
		Types of Criminal Organization
			The Mafia
			Outlaw Motorcyle Gangs
			Prison Gangs
			Urban Street Gangs
			Transnational Organized Crime
		Criminal Justice Responses
			The Chicago Crime Commission
			The Wickersham Commission
			The Kefauver Committee
			The McClellan Committee
			The President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice
			The Organized Crime Control Act of 1970
			The President’s Commission on Organized Crime
	• Learning Check 14.3
		Theoretical Explanations
	Cybercrime
		Definition
		Types
			Hacking
			Identity Theft
			Child Pornography
			Internet Fraud
			Cyberstalking
		Criminal Justice Responses
			The Computer Fraud and Abuse Act of 1984
			The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998
			The Child Online Protection Act of 1998
			The Electronic Communications Privacy Act of 1986
			Executive Order 13694: Blocking the Property of Certain Persons Engaging in Significant Malicious Cyber-Enabled Activities
			The Strengthening State and Local Cyber Crime Fighting Act of 2017
		Theoretical Explanations
	• Learning Check 14.4
	Conclusion
	Key Terms
	Discussion Questions
	Resources
Chapter 15: Hate Crimes, Mass Murder, Terrorism, and Homeland Security
	• Case Study: The Poway Synagogue Shooting
	Introduction
	Hate Crimes
		Definition
		Hate Groups
		Anti-Hate-Crime Legislation
			The Hate Crime Statistics Act of 1990
			The Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994
			The Church Arson Prevention Act of 1996
			The Campus Hate Crimes Right to Know Act of 1997
			The Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act of 2009
			Model State Legislation: Hate Crimes/Violence Against People Experiencing Homelessness
		Theoretical Explanations of Hate Crimes
	• Why Do They Do It? The Murder of Matthew Shepard
	• Learning Check 15.1
	Multicide
		Categories of Mass Killers
		School Attacks
		Disparity in Rates of Committing Multicide Across Race and Religious Ideology
	Terrorism
		Definition
		Typologies
		Extent
		Historical Context
			The French Revolution
			Late-19th-Century and Early-20th-Century Terrorism
			Contemporary Terrorism
	• Applying Theory to Crime: Terrorism
		Current Context
			Organizational Networks
			Financial Support
			The Influence of the Media
		Domestic Terrorism
		Theoretical Explanations
	• Learning Check 15.2
	Homeland Security
		Origins
		Definition
		The Homeland Security Organizational Network
		Agencies Responsible for Homeland Security
			The Transportation Security Administration (TSA)
			Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS)
			Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE)
			The Secret Service
			The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
			The Coast Guard
		Bureaucratic Problems and Solutions
		Issues Related to Civil Liberties
			The Torture Debate
			Human Rights
			The Constitution
			The USA PATRIOT Act of 2001
	• Learning Check 15.3
	Policy Implications
	Conclusion
	Key Terms
	Discussion Questions
	Resources
Chapter 16: Drugs and Crime
	• Case Study: Kenneth Saltzman
	Introduction
	Depressants
		Alcohol
	• Diagnosing Alcohol Problems
		Barbiturates
		Tranquilizers (Including Benzodiazepines)
	Narcotics
		Morphine
		Heroin
		Other Synthetic Narcotics
	Stimulants
		Cocaine
		Amphetamine
		Methamphetamine
	Other Commonly Abused Drugs
		Cannabis and Marijuana
		Steroids
		Inhalants
		Hallucinogens
	• Learning Check 16.1
	Trends of Drug Use
		The Early History of Cocaine and Opioid Addiction
		Prohibition Era
		“Reefer Madness”
		The 1960s and the Baby Boomers
		The “War on Drugs” Era
		Current Trends Regarding Drug Use
	• Why Do They Do It? Ryan Thomas Haight
	The Link Between Drugs and Crime
	• Learning Check 16.2
	Modern Policies Related to Reducing Drug Use
		Interdiction Strategies
		Eradication Strategies
		Drug Courts
		Maintenance and Decriminalization
		Harm Reduction
	• Applying Theory to Crime: Drug Selling/Trafficking and Drug Use
		Legislation and Litigation
	• Learning Check 16.3
	Policy Recommendations
	• Why Do They Do It? Pablo Escobar
	Conclusion
	Key Terms
	Discussion Questions
	Resources
Glossary
Notes
Index