Introduction to Chemistry : a conceptual approach

Cover Page......Page 1
Title Page......Page 2
Copyright Page......Page 3
Dedication......Page 4
About the Authors......Page 5
Preface......Page 12
Brief Contents......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
1: Matter and Energy......Page 21
Composition of Matter......Page 23
Representations of Matter......Page 29
States of Matter......Page 31
1.2: PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER......Page 33
Physical Properties......Page 34
Physical Changes......Page 43
Chemical Properties......Page 44
1.3: ENERGY AND ENERGY CHANGES......Page 47
Observations......Page 50
Hypotheses......Page 51
Theories......Page 52
Scientific Inquiry in Practice......Page 53
SUMMARY......Page 54
Math Toolbox 1.1: Scientific Notation......Page 55
Math Toolbox 1.2: Significant Figures......Page 57
Math Toolbox 1.3: Units and Conversions......Page 60
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 64
2: Atoms, Ions, and the Periodic Table......Page 71
2.1: DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY......Page 73
Subatomic Particles......Page 75
The Nuclear Atom......Page 77
Isotopes, Atomic Number, and Mass Number......Page 79
2.3: IONS......Page 84
2.4: ATOMIC MASS......Page 87
Classification of Elements......Page 90
Ions and the Periodic Table......Page 93
KEY TERMS......Page 95
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 96
3: Chemical Compounds......Page 103
3.1: IONIC AND MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS......Page 105
Monatomic Ions......Page 110
Polyatomic Ions......Page 112
3.3: FORMULAS FOR IONIC COMPOUNDS......Page 115
3.4: NAMING IONIC COMPOUNDS......Page 118
3.5: NAMING AND WRITING FORMULAS FOR MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS......Page 123
3.6: ACIDS AND BASES......Page 126
3.7: PREDICTING PROPERTIES AND NAMING COMPOUNDS......Page 130
SUMMARY......Page 131
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 132
4: Chemical Composition......Page 139
4.1: PERCENT COMPOSITION......Page 142
Moles and Particles......Page 144
Molar Mass......Page 147
Empirical and Molecular Formulas......Page 152
Determining Empirical Formulas......Page 154
Empirical Formulas from Percent Composition......Page 155
Empirical Formulas for Compounds Containing More Than Two Elements......Page 156
Empirical Formulas with Fractional Mole Ratios......Page 158
Molecular Formulas from Empirical Formulas......Page 159
Determining Percent Composition......Page 160
Concentration......Page 162
Percent by Mass......Page 163
Molarity......Page 164
Dilution......Page 168
SUMMARY......Page 170
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 171
5: Chemical Reactions and Equations......Page 177
5.1: WHAT IS A CHEMICAL REACTION?......Page 179
5.2: HOW DO WE KNOW A CHEMICAL REACTION OCCURS?......Page 180
5.3: WRITING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS......Page 182
5.4: PREDICTING CHEMICAL REACTIONS......Page 189
Decomposition Reactions......Page 192
Combination Reactions......Page 194
Single-Displacement Reactions......Page 196
Double-Displacement Reactions......Page 199
Combustion Reactions......Page 204
5.5: REPRESENTING REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTION......Page 206
SUMMARY......Page 208
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 209
6: Quantities in Chemical Reactions......Page 219
6.1: THE MEANING OF A BALANCED EQUATION......Page 222
6.2: MOLE-MOLE CONVERSIONS......Page 223
6.3: MASS-MASS CONVERSIONS......Page 225
6.4: LIMITING REACTANTS......Page 228
6.5: PERCENT YIELD......Page 238
Law of Conservation of Energy......Page 240
Energy Changes That Accompany Chemical Reactions......Page 241
Quantities of Heat......Page 243
6.7: HEAT CHANGES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS......Page 249
SUMMARY......Page 252
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 253
7: Electron Structure of the Atom......Page 263
7.1: ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION AND ENERGY......Page 265
Properties of Electromagnetic Radiation......Page 266
Atomic Spectra......Page 270
7.2: THE BOHR MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM......Page 271
7.3: THE MODERN MODEL OF THE ATOM......Page 274
Orbital Diagrams for Multielectron Atoms......Page 276
Electron Configurations......Page 280
7.4: PERIODICITY OF ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS......Page 281
7.5: VALENCE ELECTRONS FOR THE MAIN-GROUP ELEMENTS......Page 286
7.6: ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS FOR IONS......Page 288
Chemical Reactivity and Electron Configurations......Page 290
Ionization Energy......Page 292
Atomic Size......Page 296
Sizes of Ions......Page 297
SUMMARY......Page 299
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 300
8: Chemical Bonding......Page 305
8.1: TYPES OF BONDS......Page 307
Ionic and Covalent Bonding......Page 308
Electronegativity......Page 310
Lewis Symbols......Page 313
Structures of Ionic Crystals......Page 315
8.3: COVALENT BONDING......Page 316
Lewis Formulas for the Diatomic Elements......Page 317
Valence Electrons and Number of Bonds......Page 318
Structures of Covalent Molecules......Page 320
Exceptions to the Octet Rule......Page 325
Bonding in Carbon Compounds......Page 326
The Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion Theory......Page 329
Polarity of Molecules......Page 335
KEY TERMS......Page 338
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 339
9: The Gaseous State......Page 345
Temperature and Density......Page 348
Pressure......Page 349
Volume and Pressure......Page 352
Volume and Temperature......Page 356
Volume, Pressure, and Temperature......Page 359
Avogadro’s Hypothesis......Page 361
9.3: THE IDEAL GAS LAW......Page 364
Calculations with the Ideal Gas Law......Page 365
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures......Page 367
Postulates of Kinetic-Molecular Theory......Page 369
Diffusion and Effusion......Page 371
Product Volume from Reactant Volume......Page 372
Moles and Mass from Volume......Page 374
SUMMARY......Page 375
Math Toolbox 9.1: Graphing......Page 376
Math Toolbox 9.2: Solving Simple Algebraic Equations......Page 378
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 380
10: The Liquid and Solid States......Page 391
10.1: CHANGES OF STATE......Page 394
Liquid-Gas Phase Changes......Page 396
Liquid-Solid Phase Changes......Page 399
Solid-Gas Phase Changes......Page 400
Cooling and Heating Curves......Page 402
Energy Changes......Page 403
London Dispersion Forces......Page 407
Dipole-Dipole Forces......Page 409
Hydrogen Bonding......Page 410
Trends in Intermolecular Forces......Page 413
Density......Page 416
Surface Tension......Page 417
Crystals and Crystal Lattices......Page 420
Types of Crystalline Solids......Page 421
KEY TERMS......Page 428
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 429
11: Solutions......Page 435
11.1: THE COMPOSITION OF SOLUTIONS......Page 437
11.2: THE SOLUTION PROCESS......Page 441
Structure......Page 445
Temperature......Page 447
Pressure......Page 448
11.4: MEASURING CONCENTRATIONS OF SOLUTIONS......Page 449
Percent by Mass......Page 451
Mass/Volume Percent......Page 453
Parts per Million and Parts per Billion......Page 454
Molarity......Page 455
Molality......Page 456
Precipitation Reactions......Page 457
Acid-Base Titrations......Page 461
Osmotic Pressure......Page 463
Vapor Pressure Lowering......Page 465
Boiling Point Elevation......Page 466
Freezing Point Depression......Page 467
Colligative Properties and Strong Electrolytes......Page 468
SUMMARY......Page 469
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 470
12: Reaction Rates and Chemical Equilibrium......Page 477
12.1: REACTION RATES......Page 480
12.2: COLLISION THEORY......Page 481
12.3: CONDITIONS THAT AFFECT REACTION RATES......Page 484
Temperature......Page 485
Catalysts......Page 487
12.4: CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM......Page 492
12.5: THE EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT......Page 493
The Equilibrium Constant Expression......Page 494
Predicting the Direction of a Reaction......Page 497
Heterogeneous Equilibrium......Page 499
Reactant or Product Concentration......Page 502
Volume of the Reaction Container......Page 504
Temperature......Page 507
Increasing Product Yield......Page 509
SUMMARY......Page 510
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 511
13: Acids and Bases......Page 519
Acid and Base Definitions......Page 521
Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs......Page 523
13.2: STRONG AND WEAK ACIDS AND BASES......Page 525
Strong Bases......Page 526
Weak Acids......Page 527
Weak Bases......Page 529
\nAcid Ionization Constants......Page 532
Polyprotic Acids......Page 533
The Ion-Product Constant of Water......Page 535
Calculating H3O+ and OH– Ion Concentrations......Page 536
Calculating pH......Page 539
Calculating pOH......Page 542
Calculating Concentrations from pH or pOH......Page 543
Measuring pH......Page 545
13.6: BUFFERED SOLUTIONS......Page 546
Math Toolbox 13.1: Log and Inverse Log Functions......Page 550
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 553
14: Oxidation-Reduction Reactions......Page 559
14.1: WHAT IS AN OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTION?......Page 562
14.2: OXIDATION NUMBERS......Page 566
14.3: BATTERIES......Page 571
14.4: BALANCING SIMPLE OXIDATION-REDUCTION EQUATIONS......Page 578
14.5: BALANCING COMPLEX OXIDATION-REDUCTION EQUATIONS......Page 582
14.6: ELECTROCHEMISTRY......Page 587
Voltaic Cells......Page 588
Electrolytic Cells......Page 590
14.7: CORROSION PREVENTION......Page 593
KEY TERMS......Page 595
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 596
15: Nuclear Chemistry......Page 603
Nuclear Decay......Page 605
Radiation......Page 606
Equations for Nuclear Reactions......Page 607
Predicting Spontaneous Nuclear Decay Reactions......Page 614
Detection of Radiation......Page 618
Half-Lives......Page 619
Archeological Dating......Page 621
Geological Dating......Page 622
Medical Diagnoses......Page 623
Positron Emission Tomography......Page 624
Radiation Exposure......Page 625
Radon......Page 627
Uranium-235 Fission......Page 628
Chain Reactions......Page 629
Fission Reactors......Page 630
Fusion Reactors......Page 631
SUMMARY......Page 633
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 634
16: Organic Chemistry......Page 639
16.1: REPRESENTATIONS OF ORGANIC MOLECULES......Page 643
Classes of Hydrocarbons......Page 647
Petroleum......Page 649
Alkanes......Page 650
Alkenes and Alkynes......Page 656
Cycloalkanes and Cycloalkenes......Page 660
Aromatic Hydrocarbons......Page 661
Alcohols......Page 664
Aldehydes......Page 666
Carboxylic Acids......Page 667
Esters......Page 668
16.8: AMINES......Page 671
Alkenes and Alkynes......Page 672
Other Naming Conventions......Page 673
KEY TERMS......Page 674
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 675
17: Biochemistry......Page 681
Composition of Proteins......Page 684
Hydrolysis of Proteins......Page 691
Structure of Proteins......Page 693
17.2: NUCLEIC ACIDS......Page 698
Structure of Nucleic Acids......Page 699
Deoxyribonucleic Acid and Replication......Page 702
Ribonucleic Acid, Transcription, and Translation......Page 703
17.3: CARBOHYDRATES......Page 707
Simple Carbohydrates......Page 708
Complex Carbohydrates......Page 710
17.4: LIPIDS......Page 714
SUMMARY......Page 719
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 720
APPENDIX A: Useful Reference Information......Page 725
APPENDIX B: Math Toolboxes......Page 727
APPENDIX C: Answers to Practice Problems......Page 728
APPENDIX D:  Answers to Selected Questions and Problems......Page 733
Glossary......Page 764
Credits......Page 771
Index......Page 773