Introduction to Behavioral Research Methods

Cover......Page 2
Title Page......Page 5
Copyright Page......Page 6
Acknowledgments......Page 19
Contents......Page 7
Preface......Page 17
Chapter 1 Research in the Behavioral Sciences......Page 21
The Beginnings of Behavioral Research......Page 22
Goals of Behavioral Research......Page 23
Predicting Behavior......Page 24
The Value of Research to the Student......Page 25
Public Verification......Page 27
Solvable Problems......Page 28
The Scientist’s Two Jobs: Detecting and Explaining Phenomena......Page 29
Research Hypotheses......Page 31
Conceptual and Operational Definitions......Page 34
The Logical Impossibility of Proof......Page 36
If Not Proof or Disproof, Then What?......Page 37
The Scientific Filter......Page 38
Correlational Research......Page 41
Quasi-Experimental Research......Page 42
Domains of Behavioral Science......Page 43
Behavioral Research on Human and Nonhuman Animals......Page 44
A Preview......Page 46
Summary......Page 47
Questions for Review......Page 48
Questions for Discussion......Page 49
Chapter 2 Behavioral Variability and Research......Page 51
Variability and the Research Process......Page 52
Variance: An Index of Variability......Page 54
A Conceptual Explanation of Variance......Page 55
A Statistical Explanation of Variance......Page 56
Systematic Variance......Page 58
Error Variance......Page 59
Distinguishing Systematic from Error Variance......Page 60
Effect Size: Assessing the Strength of Relationships......Page 61
Meta-Analysis: Systematic Variance Across Studies......Page 64
Summary......Page 66
Questions for Review......Page 67
Questions for Discussion......Page 68
Chapter 3 The Measurement of Behavior......Page 69
Types of Measures......Page 70
Scales of Measurement......Page 71
Measurement Error......Page 73
Types of Reliability......Page 76
Increasing the Reliability of Measures......Page 80
Types of Validity......Page 81
Fairness and Bias in Measurement......Page 85
Key Terms......Page 88
Questions for Discussion......Page 89
Chapter 4 Approaches to Psychological Measurement......Page 91
Naturalistic Versus Contrived Settings......Page 92
Disguised Versus Nondisguised Observation......Page 93
Behavioral Recording......Page 95
Increasing the Reliability of Observational Methods......Page 97
Neuroimaging......Page 98
Self-Report Approaches: Questionnaires and Interviews......Page 100
Writing Items......Page 101
Questionnaires......Page 105
Interviews......Page 108
Advantages of Questionnaires versus Interviews......Page 109
Biases in Self-Report Measurement......Page 110
Archival Data......Page 111
Content Analysis......Page 113
Summary......Page 115
Key Terms......Page 116
Questions for Discussion......Page 117
A Common Misconception......Page 119
The Error of Estimation......Page 120
Simple Random Sampling......Page 122
Systematic Sampling......Page 123
Cluster Sampling......Page 124
The Problem of Nonresponse......Page 126
Misgeneralization......Page 128
Convenience Sampling......Page 129
Purposive Sampling......Page 131
Error of Estimation......Page 132
Power......Page 133
Summary......Page 134
Questions for Review......Page 135
Questions for Discussion......Page 136
Chapter 6 Descriptive Research......Page 137
Survey Research......Page 138
Demographic Research......Page 141
Epidemiological Research......Page 142
Frequency Distributions......Page 144
Measures of Central Tendency......Page 146
Presenting Means in Tables and Graphs......Page 148
Measures of Variability......Page 151
Standard Deviation and the Normal Curve......Page 152
The z-Score......Page 155
Summary......Page 157
Questions for Review......Page 158
Chapter 7 Correlational Research......Page 160
A Graphic Representation of Correlations......Page 162
The Coefficient of Determination......Page 163
Statistical Significance of r......Page 169
Restricted Range......Page 171
Outliers......Page 172
Reliability of Measures......Page 173
Correlation and Causality......Page 174
Partial Correlation......Page 176
Other Indices of Correlation......Page 178
Summary......Page 179
Questions for Review......Page 180
Exercises......Page 181
Predicting Behavior: Regression Strategies......Page 183
Linear Regression......Page 184
Types of Multiple Regression......Page 185
Multiple Correlation......Page 189
Structural Equations Modeling......Page 190
Analyzing Nested Data: Multilevel Modeling......Page 193
Basics of Factor Analysis......Page 196
Uses of Factor Analysis......Page 197
Key Terms......Page 199
Questions for Discussion......Page 200
Chapter 9 Basic Issues in Experimental Research......Page 202
Independent Variables......Page 204
Dependent Variables......Page 208
Simple Random Assignment......Page 209
Repeated Measures Designs......Page 210
Systematic Variance Revisited......Page 214
An Analogy......Page 215
Internal Validity......Page 216
Threats to Internal Validity......Page 217
Experimenter Expectancies, Demand Characteristics, and Placebo Effects......Page 220
Sources of Error Variance......Page 223
Experimental Control and Generalizability: The Experimenter’s Dilemma......Page 226
Web-Based Experimental Research......Page 227
Summary......Page 228
Questions for Review......Page 229
Questions for Discussion......Page 230
Answers to In-Chapter Questions......Page 231
Chapter 10 Experimental Design......Page 232
One-Way Designs......Page 233
Assigning Participants to Conditions......Page 234
Posttest and Pretest–Posttest Designs......Page 235
Factorial Designs......Page 237
Factorial Nomenclature......Page 238
Assigning Participants to Conditions......Page 240
Interactions......Page 242
Combining Independent and Participant Variables......Page 245
Summary......Page 249
Questions for Discussion......Page 250
Chapter 11 Analyzing Experimental Data......Page 252
The Problem: Error Variance Can Cause Differences Between Means......Page 253
The Null Hypothesis......Page 254
Type I and Type II Errors......Page 255
Effect Size......Page 257
Summary......Page 258
Conducting a t-Test......Page 259
Back to the Droodles Experiment......Page 262
Analyses of Matched-Subjects and Within-Subjects Designs......Page 263
Computer Analyses......Page 264
Summary......Page 266
Questions for Review......Page 267
Exercises......Page 268
Answers to Designing and Analysing Two-Group Experiments......Page 269
Chapter 12 Analyzing Complex Experimental Designs......Page 270
The Problem: Conducting Multiple Tests Inflates Type I Error......Page 271
The Rationale Behind ANOVA......Page 272
Sum of Squares Within-Groups......Page 273
The F-Test......Page 274
Extension of ANOVA to Factorial Designs......Page 275
Follow-Up Tests......Page 277
Interactions......Page 278
Putting It All Together: Interpreting Main Effects and Interactions......Page 280
Between-Subjects and Within-Subjects ANOVAs......Page 282
Multivariate Analysis of Variance......Page 283
How MANOVA Works......Page 284
Summary......Page 286
Questions for Review......Page 287
Questions for Discussion......Page 288
Chapter 13 Quasi-Experimental Designs......Page 289
How NOT to Do a Study: The One-Group Pretest–Posttest Design......Page 291
Nonequivalent Control Group Design......Page 292
Simple Interrupted Time Series Design......Page 296
Interrupted Time Series with a Reversal......Page 298
Control Group Interrupted Time Series Design......Page 299
Comparative Time Series Design......Page 300
Longitudinal Designs......Page 302
Program Evaluation......Page 304
Increasing Confidence in Quasi-Experimental Results......Page 306
Summary......Page 308
Questions for Discussion......Page 309
Chapter 14 Single-Case Research......Page 311
Criticisms of Group Designs and Analyses......Page 313
Basic Single-Case Experimental Designs......Page 316
Data from Single-Participant Designs......Page 318
Uses of Single-Case Experimental Designs......Page 320
Critique of Single-Participant Designs......Page 322
Uses of the Case Study Method......Page 323
Limitations of the Case Study Approach......Page 324
Summary......Page 326
Questions for Discussion......Page 327
Chapter 15 Ethical Issues in Behavioral Research......Page 329
Approaches to Ethical Decisions......Page 330
Potential Benefits......Page 332
The Institutional Review Board......Page 333
Problems with Obtaining Informed Consent......Page 334
Coercion to Participate......Page 336
Physical and Mental Stress......Page 337
Objections to Deception......Page 338
Confidentiality......Page 339
Common Courtesy......Page 341
Vulnerable Populations......Page 342
Ethical Principles in Research with Nonhuman Animals......Page 344
Scientific Misconduct......Page 346
Suppression of Scientific Inquiry and Research Findings......Page 348
Summary......Page 350
Questions for Review......Page 351
Questions For Discussion......Page 352
Journal Publication......Page 353
Presentations at Professional Meetings......Page 354
Personal Contact......Page 355
Organization......Page 356
Clarity......Page 357
Conciseness......Page 358
Gender-Neutral Language......Page 360
Parts of a Manuscript......Page 362
Abstract......Page 363
Method......Page 364
Results......Page 365
Citations in the Text......Page 366
The Reference List......Page 367
Headings, Spacing, Pagination, and Numbers......Page 370
Using PsycINFO......Page 372
Sample Manuscript......Page 374
Exercises......Page 398
Answers to Question 13......Page 399
C......Page 400
E......Page 402
F......Page 403
I......Page 404
M......Page 405
N......Page 406
P......Page 407
R......Page 409
S......Page 410
T......Page 411
Z......Page 412
Appendix A: Statistical Tables......Page 413
Appendix B: Computational Formulas for ANOVA......Page 418
Appendix C: Choosing the Proper Statistical Analysis......Page 427
References......Page 429
C......Page 440
E......Page 441
I......Page 442
M......Page 443
P......Page 444
S......Page 445
U......Page 446
Z......Page 447