International Tourism: Cultures and Behavior

Front Cover
......Page 1
International Tourism: Cultures and Behavior......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
Preface......Page 18
List of Tables......Page 22
List of Figures......Page 24
Introduction......Page 26
Acknowledgements......Page 30
Part 1 International Tourism: The Global Environment......Page 31
1.1 The concept and roots of globalization......Page 33
1.2 Benefits and criticism of globalization
......Page 36
1.3.1 The 
influence of globalization on tourism......Page 38
1.3.2 Forms and examples of globalization in tourism......Page 39
1.3.3 A new type of tourist......Page 40
1.3.4 A new type of tourism......Page 43
1.4.1 The emergence of globalized consumer culture?......Page 45
1.4.3 Disappearance of local cultures?......Page 46
1.4.4 Cultural homogenization?......Page 47
1.4.5 Product standardization or customization?......Page 48
1.4.8 Cultural hybridization?......Page 49
1.4.10 Cultural deterioration, loss, adaptation or change?......Page 50
1.4.12 Globalization and disappearance of local identity?......Page 51
1.4.13 Resistance to cultural change and emergence of local identity......Page 52
1.5 Benefits
 and limitations of globalizati on in tourism......Page 53
1.6 Challenges of globalization in tourism......Page 54
1.7 The future of globalization: Americanization of culture, cosmopolitan culture, cultural hybridization, cultural disappearance or culture clash?......Page 55
Summary......Page 57
Disneyland resorts spread over the world......Page 58
Website links......Page 59
Introduction......Page 61
2.1.1 Defi nition......Page 62
2.1.2 Interpretation of cultural diversity......Page 63
2.1.5 Is cultural diversity important?......Page 64
2.1.
7 The influence of cultural diversity on tourism and hospitality......Page 65
2.2 UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity......Page 67
2.3 The future of cultural diversity......Page 69
2.4 Challenges for the tourism and hospitality industry......Page 70
Summary......Page 71
Case Study 2.1: American in Paris......Page 72
Case Study 2.2: Creativity in a tense situation......Page 73
Case Study 2.3: Promoting the “unpromotional”......Page 74
Website links......Page 75
Part 2 Cultural Theories and Practices......Page 77
Introduction......Page 79
3.1 Communication Resourcefulness Theory (CRT)......Page 80
3.2 Episode Representation Theory (ERT)......Page 81
3.3 Expectations Theory (ET)......Page 82
3.4 Cultural Identity Negotiation Theory (CINT)......Page 83
3.6 Network Theory in Intercultural Communication......Page 84
3.7 Taxonomic Approach (TA)......Page 86
3.8 Anxiety/Uncertainty Management Theory (AUMT)......Page 87
3.11 Intercultural Adaptation Theory (IAT)......Page 89
3.12 Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT)......Page 90
3.13 Coordinated Management of Meaning Theory......Page 93
Summary......Page 94
Website links......Page 95
4.1 Erosion of local cultures......Page 97
4.4 Cultural arrogance......Page 98
4.6 Renaissance of traditional art forms......Page 99
4.8 Culture change......Page 100
4.10 Cultural borrowing......Page 101
4.11 Cultural drift......Page 102
4.12 Acculturation......Page 103
4.13 Cultural adaptation......Page 104
4.15 Culture assimilation......Page 105
4.17 Demonstration effect......Page 107
4.18
 Cultural conflict......Page 108
Discussion points and questions......Page 110
Case Study 4.1: Discovering the Maori culture......Page 111
Website links......Page 112
Part 3 Culture and Cultural Differences......Page 113
Introduction......Page 115
5.1 Definition of culture
......Page 116
5.3 Cultures by region......Page 121
5.5 The world’s major religions......Page 122
5.6 Religion by region......Page 126
5.7 Types and levels of culture......Page 128
5.8 Civilization......Page 131
5.10 The purpose of culture......Page 134
5.11 Characteristics of culture......Page 135
5.12 Subcultures......Page 136
5.14 Culture versus country of residence......Page 139
5.16 Cultural identity......Page 140
5.17 Cultural distance......Page 141
5.18 The impact of cultural distance on travel......Page 142
5.19 The measurement of cultural distance......Page 143
Summary......Page 144
Case Study 5.1: Micro-cultures of the US......Page 145
Website links......Page 147
6.1 Sources of cultural differences......Page 149
6.2.1 Concept and definitions
......Page 152
6.2.3 Value system and value orientation......Page 153
6.2.6 
Classification of values......Page 154
6.2.7 Measurement and analysis of values......Page 155
6.2.9 Cultural value dimensions......Page 157
6.2.9.1 Parson’s pattern variables......Page 158
6.2.9.2 Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s value orientation......Page 159
6.2.9.3 Stewart’s cultural patterns......Page 162
6.2.9.4 Hall’s cultural differentiation......Page 164
6.2.9.5 Hofstede’s dimensions of cultural variability......Page 169
6.2.9.6 Bond’s Confucian cultural patterns......Page 180
6.2.9.7 Argyle’s cultural differentiation......Page 181
6.2.9.8 Schein’s, Trompenaars’ and Maznevski’s cultural differentiation......Page 182
6.2.9.9 Schneider and Barsoux’s cultural assumptions......Page 184
6.2.9.11 Minkov’s World Value Survey......Page 185
Exercises......Page 191
Case Study 6.1: The US culture......Page 192
Website links......Page 193
Introduction......Page 195
7.1 The concept of communication......Page 196
7.2 What is intercultural communication?......Page 197
7.3.1 Verbal signals......Page 198
7.3.2 Non-verbal signals......Page 200
7.3.3 Relationship patterns......Page 203
7.3.4 Conversation style......Page 208
7.3.5 Interaction style......Page 210
7.3.6 Values......Page 211
7.3.8 Context orientation......Page 217
7.4 Is intercultural communication possible?......Page 220
7.6 Stereotyping......Page 222
7.7 Prejudices......Page 224
7.9 Strategies for improving intercultural communication......Page 225
Summary......Page 226
Case Study 7.1: Courtesy and politeness in Thailand and Australia......Page 227
Website links......Page 228
8.1 The concept of scoial interaction......Page 229
8.2 Social interaction in tourism......Page 231
8.2.1 The nature of tourist–host social interaction......Page 235
8.2.2 Context......Page 236
8.3.2 Interculturalness of social interaction......Page 239
8.4 Types of intercultural interaction......Page 240
8.5 Model of cross-cultural social interaction......Page 241
8.6 Contact hypothesis......Page 242
8.8 Difficulties in cross-cultural 
interaction......Page 243
8.9 Culture shock......Page 244
8.9.1 Symptoms of culture shock......Page 245
8.9.5 Culture shock in tourism......Page 246
8.9.6 Phases of culture shock......Page 247
8.9.7 Intensity and duration of culture shock......Page 249
8.9.8 Doxey’s Irridex ‘‘Irritation Index’’......Page 250
Summary......Page 251
Case Study 8.1: Shanghai night or nightmare?......Page 252
Website links......Page 253
9.1 Rules of social interaction......Page 255
9.2 Orders and types of rules......Page 256
9.4 Cultural influences on rules of social interaction
......Page 257
9.6 Breaking rules......Page 258
Summary......Page 259
Case Study 9.1: Universal and 
specific rules of social relationships......Page 260
Websites......Page 261
10.1 The concept of service......Page 263
10.4 Key characteristics of service......Page 264
10.6 Cultural differences in expectations from service......Page 267
10.7 Service quality and value......Page 268
10.9 Do cultural differences always matter?......Page 270
Discussion points and questions......Page 271
Website links......Page 272
Introduction......Page 273
The concept of ethics......Page 274
11.1 Ethics in tourism......Page 275
11.3 Cultural influences in ethical behavior
......Page 277
11.4 The most debatable business ethics issues......Page 278
11.5 Conflicting ethical behavior and practices in tourism and hospitality. Ethical dilemmas
......Page 281
11.6 Theories and frameworks dealing with ethical dilemmas......Page 284
11.7 Strategies for managing business ethical dilemmas......Page 286
Summary......Page 287
Case Study 11.1: Global Code of Ethics for Tourism......Page 288
Website links......Page 291
Part 4 Tourist Behavior......Page 293
Introduction......Page 295
12.1 The concept of human behavior......Page 296
12.2 Environmental factors influencing human behavior
......Page 298
12.3 Theories of human behavior......Page 300
12.3.1 Cause-Motive-Behavior-Goal Theory......Page 301
12.3.2 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs......Page 302
12.3.5 Expectancy Theory......Page 306
12.3.8 Equity Theory......Page 307
12.4 Basic needs of human behavior......Page 308
12.7 The nature of tourist behavior......Page 309
12.8 The meaning of tourist behavior......Page 311
12.9 The importance of studying tourist behavior......Page 312
12.10 The importance of studying tourist behavior in a cross-cultural context......Page 313
12.11.1 Tourism industry perspective......Page 314
12.11.2 Tourist perspective......Page 315
12.11.3 Local resident perspective......Page 316
Discussion points and questions......Page 317
Website links......Page 318
Introduction......Page 319
13.1.1 Environmental stimuli......Page 321
13.2.1 Buyer’s personal characteristics......Page 331
13.2.2 Decision process......Page 335
Summary......Page 348
Discussion points and questions......Page 349
Website links......Page 350
Introduction......Page 351
14.1.1 Gender roles......Page 352
14.1.2 Lifestyle and activities......Page 353
14.1.3 Personality......Page 354
14.1.4 The self concept......Page 355
14.2.2 Perception and image......Page 356
14.2.3 Learning and knowledge......Page 358
14.2.4 Attitudes......Page 359
14.3.1 Need recognition......Page 360
14.3.2 Information search and choice of information sources......Page 361
14.3.2.2 The role of opinion leadership......Page 362
14.3.2.5 Level of decision-making......Page 363
14.3.2.6 Buying new products......Page 364
14.3.3 Criteria and product evaluation......Page 365
14.3.4.1 Purchase risk......Page 367
14.3.5.2 Loyalty and commitment......Page 369
14.3.5.3 Criticism and complaints......Page 370
14.3.6.1 Memories and meanings......Page 371
14.3.6.2 Emotions and feelings......Page 372
Discussion points and questions......Page 373
Case Study 14.2: Cultural infl uences on tourist behavior......Page 374
Website links......Page 375
Part 5 Cross-Cultural Comparison......Page 377
15.1 Africa......Page 379
15.2 Asia......Page 380
15.3 Australia......Page 387
15.4.1 Important European values......Page 389
15.5 India......Page 394
15.6 Latin America......Page 395
15.7 Middle East......Page 396
15.8 North America......Page 398
Discussion points and questions......Page 399
Case Study 15.1: Managing in Asia: Cross-cultural dimensions......Page 401
Website links......Page 403
Part 6 Multicultural Competence......Page 405
Introduction......Page 407
16.2 Dimensions of multicultural competence......Page 408
16.2.1 Cognitive domain......Page 409
16.2.2 Affective domain......Page 411
16.5 Multicultural competence development levels......Page 414
16.6 Multiculturalism assessment techniques......Page 415
Discussion points and questions......Page 416
Website links......Page 417
Conclusion......Page 419
References......Page 421