International Law

Cover
......Page 1
Half-title page......Page 3
Reviews
......Page 4
Title page......Page 7
Copyright page......Page 8
Dedication......Page 9
Contents......Page 11
Preface to the Eighth Edition......Page 23
Table of Cases......Page 24
Table of Treaties and Selected Other International Instruments......Page 48
List of
Abbreviations......Page 88
1 The Nature and Development of International Law......Page 91
Law and Politics in the World Community......Page 92
The Role of Force......Page 93
The International System
......Page 94
The Function of Politics......Page 98
Early Origins......Page 100
The Middle Ages and the Renaissance......Page 104
The Founders of Modern International Law......Page 106
Positivism and Naturalism......Page 108
The Nineteenth Century......Page 110
The Twentieth Century......Page 112
Communist Approaches to International Law......Page 113
The ‘Developing Countries’......Page 118
Suggestions for Further Reading......Page 121
The Expanding Legal Scope of International Concern......Page 122
Positive Law and Natural Law......Page 126
New Approaches
......Page 130
The Fragmentation of International Law?
......Page 138
Conclusion......Page 139
Suggestions for Further Reading......Page 140
3 Sources......Page 141
Introduction......Page 143
The Material Fact......Page 146
What is State Practice?......Page 150
Opinio Juris
......Page 152
Protest, Acquiescence and Change in Customary Law
......Page 156
Regional and Local Custom
......Page 158
Treaties
......Page 159
General Principles of Law
......Page 162
Equity and International Law
......Page 168
Judicial Decisions
......Page 171
Writers
......Page 173
Other Possible Sources of International Law......Page 174
The International Law Commission......Page 179
Unilateral Acts......Page 180
Hierarchy of Sources and Jus Cogens
......Page 181
Suggestions for Further Reading......Page 185
4 International Law and Municipal Law......Page 186
The Theories
......Page 187
The Role of Municipal Rules in International Law
......Page 190
International Law before Municipal Courts
......Page 193
The United Kingdom
......Page 195
Customary International Law......Page 196
Treaties
......Page 202
The United States
......Page 209
(i) Other Common Law and Related Legal Systems......Page 216
(ii) Civil Law Systems......Page 220
(iii) Conclusion......Page 225
Non-Justiciability, Act of State and Related Doctrines......Page 228
Executive Certificates......Page 242
Suggestions for Further Reading......Page 244
Legal Personality – Introduction......Page 245
States......Page 246
Creation of statehood
......Page 247
Self-Determination and the Criteria of Statehood......Page 252
Extinction of Statehood
......Page 254
Independence
......Page 256
Equality
......Page 258
Peaceful Co-Existence......Page 259
Protectorates and Protected States
......Page 260
Federal States
......Page 261
Mandated and Trust Territories
......Page 266
Germany 1945......Page 268
Condominium......Page 269
International Administration of Territories......Page 270
Taiwan
......Page 273
The ‘Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus’ (TRNC)
......Page 274
Kosovo......Page 275
Palestine
......Page 276
Various Secessionist Claimants......Page 278
Associations of States......Page 280
The Sovereign Order of Malta......Page 283
The Holy See and the Vatican City
......Page 284
National Liberation Movements (NLMs)......Page 285
International Public Companies......Page 286
Transnational Corporations......Page 287
The Establishment of the Legal Right......Page 288
The Definition of Self-Determination......Page 292
Individuals
......Page 294
International Organisations......Page 295
The Acquisition, Nature and Consequences of Legal Personality – Some Conclusions......Page 296
Suggestions for Further Reading......Page 299
The Nature of Human Rights
......Page 300
Ideological Approaches to Human Rights in International Law......Page 302
The Development of International Human Rights Law
......Page 303
The Exhaustion of Domestic or Local Remedies Rule
......Page 305
Priorities of Rights......Page 306
The United Nations System – General
......Page 307
Prohibition of Discrimination......Page 311
The Principle of Self-Determination as a Human Right
......Page 313
The Protection of Minorities
......Page 316
Political Bodies......Page 321
The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
......Page 324
The Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination
......Page 326
The Human Rights Committee
......Page 328
The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women......Page 334
The Committee against Torture
......Page 336
The Committee on the Rights of the Child
......Page 339
The Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
......Page 341
Conclusions......Page 342
The European Convention on Human Rights
......Page 345
The Convention System......Page 349
The European Social Charter
......Page 356
The European Convention for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman and Degrading Treatment or Punishment
......Page 357
The Council of Europe Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities
......Page 359
The European Union
......Page 361
The OSCE (Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe)
......Page 363
The CIS Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms
......Page 366
The Inter-American Convention on Human Rights
......Page 367
The Banjul Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights
......Page 373
Suggestions for Further Reading......Page 377
7 Individual Criminal Responsibility in International Law
......Page 378
International Criminal Courts and Tribunals
......Page 379
The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY)
......Page 382
The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)
......Page 385
The Mechanism for International Criminal Tribunals......Page 387
The International Criminal Court (ICC)
......Page 388
The Special Court for Sierra Leone......Page 395
Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia......Page 398
Kosovo Regulation 64 Panels
......Page 399
East Timor Special Panels for Serious Crimes
......Page 401
The Bosnia War Crimes Chamber
......Page 402
The Special Tribunal for Lebanon
......Page 403
The Iraqi High Tribunal
......Page 404
International crimes
......Page 405
Prohibition of genocide......Page 406
War Crimes
......Page 412
Crimes against Humanity
......Page 414
Aggression
......Page 416
Suggestions for Further Reading......Page 418
8 Recognition......Page 419
Recognition of States......Page 420
Recognition of Governments
......Page 426
Premature Recognition
......Page 431
Implied Recognition
......Page 433
Withdrawal of Recognition
......Page 435
Non-Recognition
......Page 437
Internally......Page 439
The UK
......Page 440
The USA......Page 447
Suggestions for Further Reading......Page 450
The Concept of Territory in International Law......Page 451
Territorial Sovereignty......Page 453
New States and Title to Territory
......Page 455
Boundary Treaties and Boundary Awards......Page 457
Cession
......Page 459
Conquest and the Use of Force......Page 461
The Exercise of Effective Control......Page 462
Intertemporal Law
......Page 467
Critical Date......Page 468
Sovereign Activities (Effectivités)......Page 469
The Role of Subsequent Conduct: Recognition, Acquiescence and Estoppel......Page 472
Conclusions......Page 476
Territorial Integrity, Self-Determination and Sundry Claims......Page 477
The Doctrine of Uti Possidetis
......Page 481
Beyond Uti Possidetis......Page 484
‘The Common Heritage of Mankind’......Page 486
The Polar Regions
......Page 487
Leases and Servitudes
......Page 491
The Law of Outer Space
......Page 493
The Definition and Delimitation of Outer Space......Page 494
The Regime of Outer Space......Page 495
Suggestions for Further Reading......Page 499
10 The Law of the Sea......Page 500
Internal Waters
......Page 502
Baselines
......Page 504
Bays
......Page 507
Islands
......Page 509
Archipelagic States
......Page 510
The Juridical Nature of the Territorial Sea
......Page 512
The Right of Innocent Passage......Page 513
Jurisdiction over Foreign Ships
......Page 516
International Straits
......Page 517
The Contiguous Zone
......Page 519
The Exclusive Economic Zone
......Page 521
The Continental Shelf
......Page 524
Definition......Page 526
The Rights and Duties of the Coastal State
......Page 528
Maritime Delimitation
......Page 529
Conclusion......Page 541
Landlocked States
......Page 542
The High Seas
......Page 543
Jurisdiction on the High Seas
......Page 545
Right of Visit
......Page 547
Piracy
......Page 548
The Slave Trade
......Page 549
Hot Pursuit
......Page 550
Treaty Rights and Agreements
......Page 551
Pollution
......Page 553
Straddling stocks
......Page 556
Introduction......Page 559
The 1982 Law of the Sea Convention (Part XI)......Page 560
The Reciprocating States Regime......Page 561
The 1994 Agreement on Implementation of the Seabed Provisions of the Convention on the Law of the Sea
......Page 562
The International Seabed Authority
......Page 563
Settlement of Disputes
......Page 564
The International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea
......Page 566
Suggestions for Further Reading......Page 572
11 Jurisdiction......Page 573
The Principle of Domestic Jurisdiction
......Page 575
Legislative, Executive and Judicial Jurisdiction......Page 576
Civil Jurisdiction
......Page 577
The Territorial Principle......Page 578
The Nationality Principle
......Page 583
The Passive Personality Principle
......Page 587
The Protective Principle
......Page 589
War Crimes, Crimes against Peace and Crimes against Humanity......Page 590
Treaties Providing for Jurisdiction......Page 594
Illegal Apprehension of Suspects and the Exercise of Jurisdiction
......Page 599
The US Alien Tort Statute
......Page 601
Extradition
......Page 604
Extraterritorial jurisdiction
......Page 605
Suggestions for Further Reading......Page 612
Sovereign Immunity
......Page 613
The Absolute Immunity Approach......Page 616
The Restrictive Approach......Page 619
Sovereign and Non-Sovereign Acts......Page 622
State Immunity and Violations of Human Rights
......Page 627
Commercial Acts......Page 630
Contracts of Employment......Page 636
Other Non-Immunity Areas......Page 638
The Personality Issue – Instrumentalities and Parts of the State
......Page 639
The Personality Issue – Immunity for Senior Government Figures
......Page 644
Waiver of Immunity......Page 649
Pre-Judgment Attachment
......Page 651
Immunity from Execution
......Page 652
The Burden and Standard of Proof......Page 656
Diplomatic Law
......Page 657
The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961......Page 658
The Inviolability of the Premises of the Mission......Page 659
The Diplomatic Bag......Page 663
Diplomatic Immunities – Property......Page 666
Diplomatic Immunities – Personal......Page 667
Waiver of Immunity......Page 672
Consular Privileges and Immunities: The Vienna Convention on Consular Relations, 1963
......Page 673
The Convention on Special Missions, 1969
......Page 675
The Vienna Convention on the Representation of States in their Relations with International Organisations of a Universal Character, 1975
......Page 677
Suggestions for Further Reading......Page 678
13 State Responsibility......Page 679
The Nature of State Responsibility......Page 681
The Question of Fault
......Page 683
Attribution
......Page 684
Ultra vires acts......Page 687
State Control and Responsibility......Page 688
Mob Violence, Insurrections and Civil Wars......Page 689
Circumstances Precluding Wrongfulness
......Page 691
Invocation of State Responsibility
......Page 695
Reparation
......Page 696
Serious Breaches of Peremptory Norms (Jus Cogens)......Page 701
Diplomatic Protection and Nationality of Claims
......Page 702
The Exhaustion of Local Remedies
......Page 710
The Treatment of Aliens
......Page 712
The Relevant Standard of Treatment......Page 713
The Protection of Foreign Property and Investments
......Page 716
The Property Question......Page 718
The Nature of Expropriation
......Page 719
Public Purposes......Page 721
Compensation......Page 722
Bilateral Investment Treaties......Page 725
Lump-Sum Agreements......Page 728
Suggestions for Further Reading......Page 729
14 International Environmental Law......Page 730
The Basic Duty of States......Page 735
The Appropriate Standard......Page 737
Damage Caused......Page 738
Liability for Damage Caused by Private Persons......Page 740
Prevention of Transboundary Harm from Hazardous Activities
......Page 741
The Problems of the State Responsibility Approach......Page 742
Use of Territory......Page 743
Environmental Impact Assessments......Page 745
The Precautionary Principle......Page 747
Sustainable Development......Page 748
The Polluter Pays......Page 749
Atmospheric Pollution
......Page 750
Ozone Depletion and Climate Change
......Page 753
Outer Space
......Page 758
International Watercourses
......Page 760
Ultra-Hazardous Activities
......Page 763
Nuclear Activities
......Page 764
The Provision of Information......Page 765
The Provision of Assistance
......Page 766
Civil Liability
......Page 767
Hazardous Wastes
......Page 769
Marine Pollution
......Page 770
Pollution from Ships......Page 771
Suggestions for Further Reading......Page 773
15 The Law of Treaties......Page 774
Formalities......Page 778
Consent......Page 779
Consent by Signature
......Page 780
Consent by Ratification
......Page 781
Consent by Accession
......Page 782
Reservations to Treaties
......Page 783
Entry into Force of Treaties......Page 791
The Application of Treaties
......Page 792
Third States......Page 793
The Amendment and Modification of Treaties......Page 795
Treaty Interpretation
......Page 796
General Provisions......Page 801
Municipal Law......Page 802
Fraud and Corruption......Page 803
Coercion......Page 804
Jus Cogens
......Page 805
Termination by Treaty Provision or Consent......Page 806
Material Breach
......Page 807
Supervening Impossibility of Performance
......Page 809
Fundamental Change of Circumstances
......Page 810
Treaties between States and International Organisations
......Page 812
Suggestions for Further Reading......Page 814
16 State Succession......Page 815
Continuity and Succession......Page 817
Succession to Treaties
......Page 822
Categories of Treaties: Territorial, Political and Other Treaties......Page 823
Succession to Treaties Generally......Page 825
Absorption and Merger......Page 826
Cession of Territory from One State to Another......Page 827
Separation from an Existing State to Form a New State or States......Page 828
‘Newly Independent States’......Page 830
Dissolution of States......Page 832
International Human Rights Treaties......Page 833
Membership of International Organisations
......Page 835
Succession to Assets and Debts
......Page 836
State Property
......Page 837
State Archives......Page 841
Public Debt
......Page 843
Private Rights......Page 847
State Succession and Nationality
......Page 849
State Succession and Responsibility
......Page 852
Suggestions for Further Reading......Page 853
17 The Settlement of Disputes by Peaceful Means......Page 854
Negotiation
......Page 857
Good Offices and Mediation
......Page 860
Inquiry
......Page 861
Conciliation
......Page 863
Regional Organisations
......Page 865
The African Union (Formerly the Organisation of African Unity)
......Page 866
The Organization of American States
......Page 869
Europe
......Page 870
The Settlement of International Economic Disputes
......Page 872
Binding Methods of Inter-State Dispute Settlement......Page 884
Arbitration
......Page 885
Suggestions for Further Reading......Page 892
18 The International Court of Justice
......Page 893
The Organisation of the Court
......Page 894
General......Page 898
The Nature of a Legal Dispute......Page 900
Contentious Jurisdiction
......Page 902
Article 36(1)......Page 906
Article 36(2)
......Page 911
Sources of Law, Propriety and Legal Interest......Page 915
Evidence......Page 917
Provisional Measures
......Page 920
Joinder of Cases
......Page 923
Counter-Claims
......Page 924
Third-Party Intervention
......Page 925
Remedies
......Page 928
Enforcement......Page 930
Application for Revision of a Judgment
......Page 931
Examination of a Situation after the Judgment......Page 932
The Advisory Jurisdiction of the Court
......Page 933
The Role of the Court......Page 937
Proliferation of Courts and Tribunals......Page 938
Suggestions for Further Reading......Page 940
Law and Force from the ‘Just War’ to the United Nations
......Page 941
The UN Charter
......Page 944
‘Force’......Page 945
‘Against the Territorial Integrity or Political Independence of Any State’......Page 947
Reprisals
......Page 949
The Right of Self-Defence
......Page 951
The Protection of Nationals Abroad
......Page 960
Collective Self-Defence
......Page 962
Civil Wars
......Page 964
Aid to the Authorities of a State
......Page 966
Aid to Rebels
......Page 968
Humanitarian Intervention
......Page 970
Terrorism and International Law
......Page 974
Suggestions for Further Reading......Page 980
20 International Humanitarian Law......Page 981
Development......Page 982
The Wounded and Sick......Page 984
Prisoners of War
......Page 985
Protection of Civilians and Occupation......Page 988
International Humanitarian Law and International Human Rights Law......Page 993
The Conduct of Hostilities
......Page 996
Armed Conflicts: International and Internal......Page 1001
Non-International Armed Conflict
......Page 1005
Enforcement of Humanitarian Law
......Page 1009
Conclusion......Page 1012
Suggestions for Further Reading......Page 1013
The UN System......Page 1014
The Security Council
......Page 1015
The General Assembly
......Page 1018
Other Principal Organs
......Page 1020
The United Nations System......Page 1023
The Security Council......Page 1024
The Secretary-General
......Page 1027
Peacekeeping and Observer Missions
......Page 1028
Conclusion......Page 1035
The Collective Security System
......Page 1036
Determination of the Situation......Page 1037
Measures Not Involving the Use of Force
......Page 1041
Measures Involving the Use of Force......Page 1048
The Use of Force in Non-Enforcement Situations......Page 1053
The Range of UN Actions from Humanitarian Assistance to Enforcement – Conclusions......Page 1060
The Security Council, International Law and the International Court of Justice......Page 1061
The Role of the General Assembly
......Page 1063
The UN and Regional Arrangements and Agencies
......Page 1065
Suggestions for Further Reading......Page 1071
Introduction......Page 1072
Some Legal Aspects of International Organisations
......Page 1079
Personality
......Page 1081
The Constituent Instruments
......Page 1085
The Powers of International Organisations
......Page 1088
The Applicable Law
......Page 1090
The Responsibility of International Organisations
......Page 1091
Liability of Member States
......Page 1094
The Accountability of International Organisations......Page 1096
Privileges and Immunities
......Page 1097
Dissolution
......Page 1106
Succession
......Page 1107
Suggestions for Further Reading......Page 1108
Index......Page 1109