Intelligent Materials

Front Cover
......Page 1
Intelligent Materials......Page 4
Coryright
 The Royal Society of Chemistry 2008......Page 5
Foreword......Page 6
Preface......Page 8
Contents......Page 10
Introduction......Page 22
1.1 Design Principles for Molecular-Level Motors
and Machines......Page 24
1.1.1 The Effects of Scale......Page 25
1.1.3 Lessons to Learn from Biological Motors and Machines......Page 26
1.2.1.1 Stimuli-induced Conformational Control around a Single
Covalent Bond......Page 27
1.2.1.3 Stimuli-induced Conformational Control Around Several
Covalent Bonds......Page 31
1.2.2 Controlling Configurational Changes......Page 32
1.3.1 Basic Features......Page 35
1.3.2.1 Adding and Removing Protons to Induce Net Positional
Change......Page 36
1.3.2.2 Adding and Removing Electrons to Induce Net Positional
Change......Page 38
1.3.2.3 Adding and Removing Metal Ions to Induce Net Positional
Change......Page 40
1.3.2.5 Changing Configuration to Induce Net Positional Change......Page 42
1.3.2.6 Shuttling via Excited States......Page 43
1.3.2.7 Entropy-driven Shuttling......Page 46
1.3.3.1 Two-way and Three-way Catenane Positional Switches......Page 47
1.3.3.2 Directional Circumrotation: A [3]Catenane Rotary
Motor......Page 50
1.3.3.3 Selective Rotation in either Direction: A [2]Catenane
Reversible Rotary Motor......Page 51
1.4.1 The Current Challenges: Constraining, Communicating,
Correlating......Page 52
1.4.2 Reporting Controlled Motion in Solution......Page 53
1.4.3.2 Solid-state Molecular Electronic Devices......Page 55
1.4.3.3 Using Mechanical Switches to Affect the Mechanical
Properties of Materials......Page 58
1.4.3.4 Using Mechanical Switches to Affect Interfacial
Properties......Page 60
1.5 Summary and Outlook......Page 61
References......Page 63
2.1 Introduction......Page 71
2.2.1 Wires......Page 73
2.2.2 Switching Devices......Page 74
2.2.3 Plug/socket Systems......Page 75
2.2.5 Antenna Systems for Light Harvesting......Page 76
2.2.7 Fluorescent Sensors with Signal Amplification......Page 79
2.2.8 Dendrimers for a Multiple Use of Light Signals......Page 82
2.2.9.1 AND Logic Gate......Page 85
2.2.9.2 XOR and XNOR Logic Gates......Page 86
2.3.1 Dethreading/rethreading of Pseudorotaxanes......Page 88
2.3.2 A Sunlight-powered Nanomotor......Page 89
2.4 Conclusions......Page 92
References......Page 93
3.1 Introduction......Page 99
3.2.1 Use of a Chemical Reaction to Induce the Contraction/
Stretching Process of a Muscle-like Rotaxane Dimer......Page 100
3.2.2 Intramolecular Complexation/Decomplexation Processes
as a Means to Make an Intermittent Degenerate
Molecular Shuttle......Page 101
3.2.3 Molecular Machines Based on Metal-ion Translocation......Page 105
3.3.1.1 A Copper-complexed [2]Catenane in Motion with Three
Distinct Geometries......Page 106
3.3.1.2 Intramolecular Motion within a Heterodinuclear
Bismacrocycle Transition-metal Complex......Page 109
3.3.1.3 A Fast-moving Electrochemically Driven Machine based
on a Pirouetting Copper-complexed Rotaxane......Page 111
3.3.2 Other Related Noninterlocking Systems......Page 112
3.4.1 Photoinduced Decoordination and Thermal Recoordination
of a Ring in a Ruthenium(II)-containing [2]Catenane......Page 114
3.4.2 A Photochemically Driven Molecular-level Abacus......Page 115
3.5 Conclusion and Prospective......Page 119
References......Page 120
4.1 Introduction......Page 123
4.2 Chemomechanical Polymers Triggered by pH......Page 124
4.3 Particle-size Effects and Kinetics......Page 130
4.4 Water Uptake and Release......Page 131
4.5 Concentration Profiles......Page 133
4.6 Cooperativity and Logical Gate Functions......Page 134
4.7 Selectivity with Organic Effector Molecules......Page 137
4.8 Ternary Complex Formation for Amino Acids
and Peptides as Effectors......Page 140
4.9 Selectivity by Covalent Interactions/
Glucose-triggered Size Changes......Page 141
4.10 Conclusions......Page 142
References......Page 143
5.1 Summary......Page 149
5.2 Introduction......Page 150
5.4 Manfacturing Methodologies......Page 151
5.5 Manufacturing Steps......Page 152
5.6 Electrically Induced Robotic Actuation......Page 153
5.7 Distributed Nanosensing and Transduction......Page 155
5.8 Modeling and Simulation......Page 159
5.9 Smart-Product Development......Page 161
5.10 Medical, Engineering and Industrial Applications......Page 162
References......Page 163
6.1 Introduction......Page 165
6.3 Electrochemical Behaviour of Conducting
Polymers in Aqueous Solution......Page 166
6.4 Nonstoichiometric, Soft, and Wet Materials......Page 170
6.5 Electrochemical Properties......Page 172
6.5.4 Porosity......Page 173
6.6 Multifunctional and Biomimicking Properties......Page 174
6.7 Natural Muscles......Page 175
6.8.1.1 Polymeric Electrochemomecanical and
Electromechanical Muscles......Page 176
6.8.1.2 Electrochemomechanical Muscles or Actuators:
Volume Variation......Page 178
6.8.1.3 Electrochemical Basic Molecular Motors......Page 179
6.8.1.5 Bending Structures......Page 180
6.8.1.8 Structures giving Lineal Movements......Page 181
6.8.1.9 Tubes and Films with Metal Supports......Page 183
6.8.1.11 Microdevices and Microtools......Page 184
6.8.1.12 Establishing a New Paradigm......Page 185
6.8.1.13 Sensing Muscles......Page 186
6.8.1.14 Tactile Muscles and Primitive Conscious Systems......Page 187
6.8.1.15 Muscles Working in Air......Page 188
6.8.1.16 Difficulties......Page 190
6.8.1.18 Actuators as Products......Page 192
6.8.2 Other Electrochemically based Properties and Devices:
Electrochromic Devices......Page 193
6.8.3 Batteries......Page 195
6.9 Theoretical Models......Page 197
6.9.2 Electrochemical Models......Page 200
6.9.3 Relaxation Models......Page 201
6.10 Final Remarks......Page 202
References......Page 205
7.1 Polyacrylonitrile in General......Page 214
7.3.2 Generative Force Characteristics: pH-driven and/or
Electrically Driven PAN Actuator......Page 217
7.3.3 Generative Force Characteristics: Effect of Different Anions......Page 219
7.3.4 Generative Force Characteristics: Effect of Acidity......Page 220
7.4 Performance of PAN Bundle Artificial Muscle......Page 221
7.4.1 Electric-current Effect on Force Generation......Page 222
7.5 Summary of Performance Capability of PAN
Artificial Muscle......Page 224
References......Page 226
8.1 Introduction......Page 228
8.2 Donors and Acceptors; HOMOs and LUMOs......Page 229
8.3 Contacts......Page 230
8.4 Two-probe, Three-probe and Four-probe
Electrical Measurements......Page 232
8.5 Resistors......Page 233
8.6 Rectifiers or Diodes......Page 235
8.8 Capacitors......Page 244
8.12 Coulomb-blockade Device and Single-electron
Transistor......Page 245
References......Page 246
9.1 Introduction......Page 254
9.3 Piezoelectric Ceramics......Page 255
9.4 Piezoelectric Ceramic Actuators......Page 256
9.5 Modeling......Page 258
9.5.1 Sensors......Page 262
9.6 Applications......Page 265
9.6.1 Vibration/Acoustic Control......Page 266
9.6.2 Rotor-blade Flap......Page 268
9.6.4 Structural Health Monitoring......Page 269
9.7 Commercial Products......Page 270
References......Page 275
10.1 Introduction......Page 279
10.2.1 Microstructures of HEEIP......Page 281
10.2.2 Electromechanical Responses of HEEIP......Page 285
10.3.1 The Electromechanical Response in P(VDF-TrFE)-based
Terpolymers......Page 289
10.3.2 The Microstructure and Ferroelectric Relaxor Behaviour
of P(VDF-TrFE-CFE) Terpolymers......Page 291
10.4 Performance of Microelectromechanical Devices......Page 296
10.5 Summary......Page 301
References......Page 302
11.1 Introduction......Page 305
11.2 Ferrogel as a New Type of Responsive Gel......Page 306
11.3 Interpretation of the Abrupt Shape Transition......Page 311
11.4 Nonhomogeneous Deformation of Ferrogels......Page 313
11.5 Muscle-like Contraction Mimicked by Ferrogels......Page 317
11.6 Control of Pseudomuscular Contraction......Page 318
References......Page 322
12.1 Introduction......Page 324
12.2.1 General Concept and Characterisation
of Shape-memory Effect......Page 326
12.2.2 Thermoplastic Shape-memory Polymers......Page 327
12.2.3 Covalently Crosslinked Shape-memory Polymers......Page 329
12.2.5 Indirect Actuation of Thermally Induced Shape-memory
Effect in Polymers......Page 331
12.3 Light-induced Shape-memory Polymers......Page 334
12.4 Multifunctional Polymers with Shape-memory
Effect......Page 335
12.5 Conclusion and Outlook......Page 336
References......Page 337
13.1 Introduction to Shape-memory Alloys......Page 340
13.2.1 Couplings......Page 343
13.2.2 Seals......Page 344
13.2.3 Electrical Connectors......Page 345
13.2.4 Virtual Two-way Actuation Using One-way NiTi
Shape-memory Alloys......Page 346
13.2.5 Nonbiased Safety Devices......Page 347
13.2.6 Thermal Interrupter......Page 348
13.2.7 Eyeglass Frames......Page 349
13.3 Medical Applications......Page 350
13.3.2 Superelastic Medical Devices......Page 351
13.3.3 Cardiovascular Stents......Page 352
13.4.1 Adaptive Structures......Page 354
13.4.2 Structural Damping......Page 356
13.4.4 Jet-engine and Other Aeronautical Applications......Page 357
13.5 Thin-film and Porous Devices......Page 359
References......Page 361
14.1 Introduction......Page 362
14.2 Historical Perspective......Page 363
14.3.1 Magnetorheological Fluids......Page 364
14.3.2 Magnetorheological Elastomers......Page 367
14.3.3 Rheological Behaviour of MR Fluids......Page 371
14.3.4 Models for Shear-yield Stress......Page 374
14.3.5 Field-induced Microstructures......Page 376
14.3.6 Rheometry of MR Fluids......Page 377
14.3.7 Effects of Surface Roughness......Page 380
14.4.1 Magnetorheological Fluid Dampers......Page 386
14.4.2 Modeling of Magnetorheological-Fluid Dampers......Page 388
14.4.3 Effect of Temperature......Page 392
14.4.4 Other Applications......Page 396
References......Page 399
15.1 Metal Hydrides in General......Page 409
15.2 Metal-hydride-actuation Principle......Page 410
15.2.1 Modeling......Page 413
15.2.2 Experiments......Page 416
References......Page 417
16.1 Introduction......Page 419
16.2 Actuation Basics......Page 420
16.3 Pre-stress Bias......Page 422
16.4.2 Structured Metal Electrodes......Page 423
16.5 Theory and Modeling......Page 424
16.6 Actuator Design: Geometry and Structure......Page 428
16.7 Applications......Page 429
16.7.1 Artificial Muscles for Biomimetic Robots......Page 432
16.7.3 Diaphragm Actuators for Pumps and Arrays......Page 434
16.7.4 Enhanced-thickness Mode Arrays......Page 435
16.7.5 Framed Actuator for Optics......Page 437
16.7.6 Sensors......Page 438
16.7.7 Generators......Page 439
16.8 Implementation Challenges for Dielectric
Elastomers......Page 440
16.9 The Future: Materials Development for New
Elastomers......Page 441
16.9.1 Improving Elastic Properties......Page 442
16.9.3 Improving Breakdown Properties......Page 443
References......Page 444
17.1 Introduction......Page 447
17.2 Azobenzenes......Page 448
17.3 Azobenzene Systems......Page 450
17.4 Photoswitchable Azo Materials......Page 453
17.5.1 Photo-orientation......Page 455
17.6.1 Surface Mass Transport......Page 457
17.7 Conclusion......Page 460
References......Page 461
18.1 Introduction......Page 470
18.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties of Chitosan......Page 471
18.2.3 Solvent and Solubility......Page 472
18.3.1 pH Sensitivity......Page 473
18.3.2 Ionic Strength Sensitivity......Page 475
18.3.4 Electrosensitivity......Page 476
18.3.5 Thermosensitivity......Page 478
18.4.2 Thermoresponsive and Dual Stimuli-responsive Polymers......Page 479
18.4.3 Magnetic Chitosan Microsphere......Page 480
18.5.1 Drug-delivery and Drug-release Systems......Page 481
18.5.3 Artificial Actuators and Muscles......Page 483
References......Page 484
19.1 Introduction......Page 487
19.2 Actin Gel Formed from Polymer–Actin
Complexes......Page 488
19.3 Polymorphism of Actin Complexes......Page 490
19.4 Oriented Myosin Gel Formed under Shear
Flow......Page 492
19.5 Motility Assay of F-actin on Oriented Myosin Gel......Page 493
19.6 Motility Assay of Polymer–Actin Complex Gel......Page 494
19.7 Polarity of the Actin in Complexes......Page 495
19.8 Conclusions......Page 497
References......Page 498
20.1 Introduction......Page 501
20.2 A New Route to Develop Intelligent Composite
Materials......Page 502
20.3 Composite Materials Fabricated by the New Route......Page 504
20.4 A New Category of Composite Materials Having
Liquid Phases for Self-repair and Other
Capabilities......Page 508
20.5 Summary and Outlook......Page 512
References......Page 513
21.1 Liquid-crystal Elastomers as Multifunctional
Materials......Page 514
21.2 Magnetic Shape-memory (MSM) Materials......Page 516
21.2.2 Sensing and Multifunctionality Properties of
MSM Materials......Page 519
21.3 Fullerenes and Carbon Nanotubes as
Multifunctional Intelligent Materials......Page 520
21.5 Electrorheological (ER) Fluids as Multifunctional
Smart Materials......Page 523
References......Page 524
22.1 Introduction......Page 529
22.2 Biological Materials: Nucleic Acids as
an Example......Page 530
22.3 Biosensors and Biochips......Page 531
22.4 Intelligent Bionanoparticles......Page 532
22.5 Nanobiosensors......Page 534
22.6 Drug-delivery and Related Systems......Page 535
References......Page 540
Subject Index......Page 545