Integrated Watershed Management in Rainfed Agriculture

Contents......Page 4
Preface......Page 16
Foreword......Page 18
List of contributors......Page 20
1.1 Introduction and overview......Page 23
1.2 The semi-arid tropics and the importance of rainfed farming......Page 24
1.4 The main experience......Page 25
1.5.1 Landlessness......Page 26
1.5.5 Health......Page 27
1.5.9 Assistance......Page 28
1.5.12 Case study......Page 29
1.6 Four stages to pull a rural community out of poverty......Page 30
1.6.1 The Process......Page 31
1.6.2 Recent improvements......Page 32
1.6.5 Second generation interventions: market links......Page 33
1.6.7 Better use of the NGOs as collaborators or implementers......Page 34
1.7.1 Management of watershed......Page 35
1.7.2 Groups and Jankars......Page 36
1.7.6 Land ownership......Page 37
1.7.9 Sustainability......Page 38
1.8.1 General principles......Page 39
1.8.2 Water......Page 43
1.8.3 Trees......Page 45
1.8.4 Livestock and fodder......Page 47
1.8.5 Aquaculture......Page 48
1.9 Future research needs......Page 49
References......Page 52
2.1 Introduction......Page 56
2.2 A concept of safe operating space for humanity......Page 58
2.3 Current status of rainfed agriculture......Page 59
2.4 Vast potential to increase crop yields in rainfed areas......Page 60
2.5 Improved water productivity is a key to unlock the potential of rainfed agriculture......Page 63
2.6 Water alone cannot do it......Page 66
2.7 Integrated watershed management is key for sustainable management of land and water resources and improved livelihoods......Page 67
References......Page 69
3.2 Watershed concept......Page 74
3.3 Importance of land use planning inwatershed development......Page 77
3.4 Criteria for prioritization of watersheds......Page 78
3.5 Common features of the watershed development model......Page 79
3.6 Evolution of watershed development approach in India......Page 81
3.7 Need for a holistic approach for watershed management......Page 84
3.8 Evolution of the consortium approach......Page 85
3.9.1 Entry Point Activity......Page 86
3.9.2 Land and water conservation practices......Page 89
3.9.4 Farmers’ participatory research and development trials......Page 90
3.9.5 Crop diversification and intensification of crops and systems......Page 91
3.9.6 Use of multiple resources......Page 92
3.9.7 Capacity building......Page 93
3.10.3 Institutionalization of partnerships......Page 95
3.11.1 Sustainability......Page 96
3.11.5 Change in organizational behavior......Page 97
3.12 Learnings from the experience and triggers for success......Page 98
3.13 Operationalizing community watershed as a growth engine......Page 99
3.15 Convergence in watershed......Page 100
3.16 Multiple benefits from integrated watershed development......Page 101
3.17 Conclusions......Page 102
References......Page 103
4.1.1 The context......Page 108
4.1.2 Exclusion of landless and women: Role of CPLRs......Page 109
4.1.3 Groundwater and equity......Page 110
4.1.5 Linkages between technology, allocation of funds, and institutions: The issue of mode......Page 111
4.1.6 Equity in policy and guidelines......Page 112
4.2.1 Equity and property relations in land and water......Page 113
4.2.2 Water: Availability and increasing water scarcity......Page 115
4.2.3 Water is a common pool resource and has competing uses......Page 118
4.2.4 Efforts to address equity......Page 119
4.2.5 Main observations......Page 123
4.3 Funds allocation and subsidies......Page 124
4.3.1 Nature of watershed treatments among sample villages......Page 125
4.3.2 Perceived benefits: Sources and beneficiaries......Page 126
4.3.3 Total number of beneficiaries: Some approximation......Page 127
4.3.4 Distribution of subsidies and alternative mechanisms......Page 128
4.3.5 Overall evidence......Page 129
4.4.2 Institutional challenges: Learning from the CPR literature......Page 130
4.4.3 Institutions within WDPs: Provisions in various guidelines......Page 131
4.4.4 Learning from the past experience: Taking stock......Page 132
4.4.5 Examples of good practices......Page 134
4.5 Gender mainstreaming......Page 138
4.5.2 Promotion of micro-enterprises......Page 139
4.5.3 Institutional challenges......Page 141
4.6.2 Policy recommendation......Page 142
4.6.3 Way forward......Page 143
References......Page 145
5.1 Introduction......Page 149
5.2 Integrated watershed management program in India......Page 150
5.3 Policy endorsement at macro level......Page 151
5.4 Watershed development guidelines......Page 155
5.4.1 The new common guidelines......Page 156
5.5 Institutional arrangements for watershed development......Page 157
5.5.1 National Rainfed Area Authority......Page 161
5.5.5 Project implementing agency......Page 162
5.6 Promoting closer institutional links......Page 163
5.7.1 Collective action......Page 165
5.7.4 Knowledge-based Entry Point Activity......Page 166
5.8 Sustainable watershed management: Role of common guidelines......Page 167
5.8.2 Delegation of power to the states......Page 168
5.8.4 Convergence......Page 169
5.8.6 Addressing equity......Page 170
5.9 Operationalizing policies......Page 171
5.10 Conclusions......Page 173
References......Page 174
6.1 Introduction......Page 178
6.2.1 Geographical information system GIS......Page 179
6.2.2 Remote sensing......Page 180
6.3 Crop-growth simulation modeling......Page 182
6.4 Field sensors and data communication devices......Page 184
6.4.3 Mobile devices......Page 185
6.6.1 Characterization of production systems in India......Page 186
6.6.2 Land use mapping for assessing fallows and cropping intensity......Page 187
6.6.4 Spatial distribution and quantification of rice-fallows in South Asia: Potential for legumes......Page 191
6.6.6 Assessment of seasonal rainfall forecasting and climate risk management options for peninsular India......Page 194
6.6.7 Baseline studies to delineate watershed......Page 196
6.6.9 Spatial water balance modeling of watersheds......Page 199
6.7.3 Climatic water balance of watersheds in China, Thailand, Vietnam, and India......Page 202
6.7.4 Rainfed length of growing period......Page 203
6.7.6 Weather forecasting for agriculture......Page 204
6.7.8 Satellite images for impact assessment......Page 205
6.7.9 Monitoring and evaluation of NWDPRA watersheds using remote sensing......Page 206
6.7.10 Monitoring and impact assessment of Adarsha watershed......Page 207
6.8 Technology integration......Page 214
6.8.1 Field data transmission......Page 215
6.8.3 Spatial simulation modeling......Page 216
6.8.5 Intelligent watershed information system......Page 217
6.9 Summary and conclusions......Page 219
References......Page 220
7.1 Introduction......Page 224
7.2.1 In-situ soil and water conservation......Page 226
7.2.2 Bunding......Page 240
7.2.3 Tillage......Page 246
7.2.4 Ex-situ soil and water conservation runoff harvesting and supplemental irrigation......Page 250
7.2.5 Indigenous soil and rainwater conservation practices......Page 256
7.3 Enhancing the impacts of soil and water conservation and water harvesting interventions through integrated watershed approach......Page 258
7.4 Strategies for improving adoption of soil and water conservation practices by farmers......Page 259
7.5 Conclusions......Page 261
References......Page 262
8.1 Introduction......Page 268
8.3 Policies and institutional frameworks......Page 270
8.4 Why focus on rainwater harvesting?......Page 272
8.5 Options for rainwater harvesting......Page 273
8.5.1 RWH from surface runoff and storage in ponds, pans, and tanks blue water......Page 274
8.5.2 Rooftop rainwater harvesting......Page 277
8.5.4 Sand and subsurface dams......Page 278
8.5.5 Runoff harvesting and storage in soil profile......Page 279
8.5.6 In-situ water harvesting and conservation......Page 282
8.5.7 Spateflow diversion and utilization......Page 284
8.5.8 Conservation agriculture and RWH......Page 285
8.5.9 Soil fertility management in supporting RWH efforts......Page 287
8.5.10 Water for livestock......Page 288
8.5.11 Socioeconomic issues in RWH......Page 289
8.7 Way forward......Page 291
8.7.1 Support rainwater harvesting......Page 292
8.7.3 Adoption of innovative financing for smallholder farmers......Page 293
8.7.6 Recommendations......Page 294
References......Page 295
9.1 Introduction......Page 300
9.2 Soil degradation – organic matter and nutrient status of SAT soils......Page 302
9.3 Balanced nutrient management: Crop productivity and quality......Page 311
9.4 Soil quality and water use efficiency......Page 317
9.5 Strategy for scaling-up the soil test-based approach for enhancing agricultural productivity......Page 320
9.6 General discussion and conclusions......Page 324
References......Page 326
10.1 Introduction......Page 333
10.2 Water use efficiency: Concepts and definitions......Page 334
10.3 Water balance of crops in different rainfed regions......Page 335
10.4 Gaps in productivity and water use efficiency......Page 336
10.5 Integrated approach to enhance productivity and water use efficiency......Page 337
10.6 Rainfall management to secure water availability......Page 338
10.6.1 In-situ soil and water conservation......Page 339
10.6.2 Water harvesting and groundwater recharge......Page 342
10.7.1 Efficient supplemental irrigation......Page 344
10.7.2 Increasing soil water uptake......Page 349
10.7.3 Reducing soil evaporation......Page 357
10.7.4 Crop breeding for increased water productivity......Page 358
10.8.2 Building institutions......Page 359
10.9 Summary and conclusions......Page 360
References......Page 361
11.1.1 An overview of watershed development programs in India......Page 366
11.1.2 Synthesis of past experience of watershed development in India......Page 370
11.1.3 Need for economic impact assessment of watershed......Page 371
11.1.4 Challenges in impact assessment of watershed development......Page 372
11.1.5 Indicators for evaluation of watershed development projects......Page 375
11.2.1 Before and after......Page 376
11.3.1 Conventional benefit-cost analysis......Page 378
11.3.2 Econometric methods Economic surplus approach......Page 379
11.3.3 Bioeconomic modeling approach......Page 387
11.3.4 Meta analysis......Page 394
11.3.5 Comparison of the methods......Page 401
11.4 Conclusions and policy recommendations......Page 402
References......Page 403
12.1 Watershed management in smallholder rainfed agroecosystems......Page 408
12.2.2 Smallholder agroecosystems and ecosystem services......Page 410
12.2.4 Summary of selected cases......Page 414
12.2.5 Academic reviews of unmanaged case studies......Page 417
12.2.6 Additional case studies......Page 418
12.2.7 Landscape limits and trade-offs between ecosystem services......Page 419
12.2.8 Long-term sustainability and the hidden impacts of management successes and failures......Page 420
12.3.2 Understanding barriers as parts of ecosystem processes......Page 422
12.3.3 Climate change as an over-arching pressure......Page 425
12.4.2 Resilience defined......Page 428
12.4.3 Drivers of system stability......Page 429
12.4.5 Defining key system components and processes......Page 430
12.4.6 Interpreting successes in terms of overall agroecosystem stability......Page 431
12.5.1 Management entry points – learning from case studies......Page 432
12.5.2 Recommendations for future research......Page 434
References......Page 435
13.2 Climate change impacts......Page 438
13.2.1 Crop and livestock production......Page 441
13.2.2 Water resources......Page 442
13.3.1 Sub-Saharan Africa......Page 443
13.3.2 South Asia......Page 444
13.4 Prices, poverty, and malnutrition......Page 445
13.5 Adaptation......Page 446
13.5.1 Coping, adaptation, and resilience......Page 447
13.5.2 Adaptation strategies......Page 451
13.6 Conclusions......Page 453
References......Page 454
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Color plates......Page 465