Integrated Pest and Disease Management in Greenhouse Crops (Plant Pathology in the 21st Century, 9)

Introduction
Contents
Part I: Major Diseases and Pests in Greenhouse Crops
	Chapter 1: Viral Diseases
		1.1 General Aspects
		1.2 Emerging Viral Diseases in Pepper
			1.2.1 Potyviruses
			1.2.2 Cucumoviruses
			1.2.3 Alfamoviruses
			1.2.4 Fabaviruses
			1.2.5 Poleroviruses
			1.2.6 Orthotospoviruses
			1.2.7 Begomoviruses
			1.2.8 Criniviruses
			1.2.9 Tobamoviruses
			1.2.10 Tombusviruses
			1.2.11 Ilarviruses
		1.3 Emerging Viral Diseases in Tomato
			1.3.1 Begomoviruses
			1.3.2 Criniviruses
			1.3.3 Potexviruses
			1.3.4 Torradoviruses
			1.3.5 Orthotospoviruses
			1.3.6 Tobamoviruses
		1.4 Emerging Viral Diseases in Cucurbits
			1.4.1 Criniviruses-Ipomoviruses-Poleroviruses-Carlavirus
			1.4.2 Tobamoviruses
			1.4.3 Begomoviruses
		References
	Chapter 2: Bacterial Diseases
		2.1 Introduction
			2.1.1 Bacterial Wilts
				2.1.1.1 Tomato Bacterial Canker
				2.1.1.2 Ralstonia Bacterial Wilts
				2.1.1.3 Bacterial Wilt of Cucurbits
			2.1.2 Bacterial Soft Rots and Stem Pith Necrosis
				2.1.2.1 Pectobacterium and Dickeya Soft Rots
				2.1.2.2 Tomato Pith Necrosis
			2.1.3 Bacterial Leaf Spots and Fruit Blotches
				2.1.3.1 Bacterial Spot of Tomato and Pepper
				2.1.3.2 Bacterial Speck of Tomato
				2.1.3.3 Cucurbit Leaf Spot and Blight
				2.1.3.4 Bacterial Fruit Blotch of Cucurbits
		2.2 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
		References
	Chapter 3: Fungal Diseases
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Aerial Fungal Pathogens
			3.2.1 Powdery Mildews
			3.2.2 Botrytis-Incited Diseases
			3.2.3 Downy Mildews and Late Blight
			3.2.4 Rusts
			3.2.5 Alternaria Diseases
			3.2.6 Didymella Diseases
			3.2.7 Cladosporium-Incited Diseases
			3.2.8 Minor Foliar Pathogens
		3.3 Vascular Wilts
			3.3.1 Verticillium-Incited Diseases
			3.3.2 Fusarium-Incited Diseases
		3.4 Root Rots and Damping-Off
			3.4.1 Sclerotinia-Incited Diseases
			3.4.2 Pythium and Phytophthora
			3.4.3 Rhizoctonia Stem Rot
			3.4.4 Corky Root Rot of Tomato
		3.5 Future Prospects
		References
	Chapter 4: Insect and Mite Pests
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 Major Mite and Insect Pests
			4.2.1 Gall Mites – Tomato Russet Mite
				4.2.1.1 Life Cycle and Appearance
				4.2.1.2 Population Development
				4.2.1.3 Damage
				4.2.1.4 Monitoring and Control
			4.2.2 Spider Mites
				4.2.2.1 Life Cycle and Appearance
				4.2.2.2 Population Development
				4.2.2.3 Damage
				4.2.2.4 Monitoring and Control
			4.2.3 Flat Mites
				4.2.3.1 Life Cycle and Appearance
				4.2.3.2 Population Development
				4.2.3.3 Damage
				4.2.3.4 Monitoring and Control
			4.2.4 Tarsonemid Mites
				4.2.4.1 Life Cycle and Appearance
				4.2.4.2 Population Development
				4.2.4.3 Damage
				4.2.4.4 Monitoring and Control
			4.2.5 Thrips
				4.2.5.1 Lifecycle and Appearance
				4.2.5.2 Population Development
				4.2.5.3 Feeding and Damage
				4.2.5.4 Monitoring and Control
			4.2.6 Whiteflies
				4.2.6.1 Life Cycle and Appearance
				4.2.6.2 Population Development
				4.2.6.3 Feeding and Damage
				4.2.6.4 Monitoring and Control
			4.2.7 Aphids
				4.2.7.1 Life Cycle and Appearance
				4.2.7.2 Population Development
				4.2.7.3 Feeding and Damage
				4.2.7.4 Monitoring and Control
			4.2.8 Scale Insects
				4.2.8.1 Life Cycle and Appearance
				4.2.8.2 Population Development
				4.2.8.3 Damage
				4.2.8.4 Monitoring and Control
			4.2.9 Lepidoptera
				4.2.9.1 Life Cycle and Appearance
				4.2.9.2 Population Development
				4.2.9.3 Feeding and Damage
				4.2.9.4 Monitoring and Control
			4.2.10 Dipteran Leafminers
				4.2.10.1 Lifecycle and Appearance
				4.2.10.2 Population Development
				4.2.10.3 Damage
				4.2.10.4 Monitoring and Control
			4.2.11 Sciarid Flies
				4.2.11.1 Life Cycle and Appearance
				4.2.11.2 Population Development
				4.2.11.3 Damage
				4.2.11.4 Monitoring and Control
			4.2.12 Beetles
				4.2.12.1 Life Cycle and Appearance
				4.2.12.2 Population Development
				4.2.12.3 Damage
				4.2.12.4 Monitoring and Control
		4.3 Prospects for the Future
		References
	Chapter 5: Nematodes
		5.1 Introduction
			5.1.1 Plant-Parasitic Nematodes
			5.1.2 Life Cycle
			5.1.3 Population Dynamics and Yield Losses
		5.2 Plant-Parasitic Nematodes on Vegetable Crops Under Protected Cultivation
			5.2.1 Sedentary Endoparasitic Nematodes
				5.2.1.1 Meloidogyne
				5.2.1.2 Heterodera
			5.2.2 Migratory Endoparasitic Nematodes
				5.2.2.1 Pratylenchus
			5.2.3 Ectoparasitic Nematodes
		5.3 Control Methods and Strategies
			5.3.1 General Methods of Reducing Nematode Density in the Soil
				5.3.1.1 Sanitation, Fallowing and Escape Cropping
				5.3.1.2 Chemical Methods: Fumigant and Non-fumigant Nematicides
				5.3.1.3 Physical Methods: Tilling, Steaming and Solarization
				5.3.1.4 Organic Methods: Soil Amendments, Biofumigation and Biopesticides
			5.3.2 Specific Methods for Reducing the Rate of Population Growth
				5.3.2.1 Biological Control
				5.3.2.2 Cover crops: Trap Crops and Buried Green Manures
				5.3.2.3 Plant Resistance and Crop Rotation Management
			5.3.3 Ecological sustainability of management strategies
				5.3.3.1 Potential Shifts Between Meloidogyne species in Communities
				5.3.3.2 Potential shifts between different PPN taxa in communities
		References
Part II: Tools for IPDM in Greenhouses
	Chapter 6: Integrated Pest Management Methods and Considerations Concerning Implementation in Greenhouses
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Methods Used in Integrated Pest and Disease Management in Greenhouses
			6.2.1 Measures Taken Before the Cropping Season to Prevent Infection of the Crop
			6.2.2 Measures Taken During the Cropping Season to Reduce Infection of the Crop
		6.3 Making Implementation of IPM a Success
		6.4 Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 7: Epidemiology and Population Dynamics: Modelisation, Monitoring and Management
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Development of Disease Epidemics and Pest Populations
			7.2.1 Elements of an Epidemic
				7.2.1.1 The Pathogen
				7.2.1.2 The Host
				7.2.1.3 The Environment
				7.2.1.4 Human Activity
			7.2.2 Factors Influencing Pest Population Dynamics in an Agricultural Ecosystem
		7.3 Disease Progress and Pest Population Increase
			7.3.1 Disease Progress Curves
			7.3.2 Area under the Disease Progress Curve
			7.3.3 Comparison of Disease Progress Curves
			7.3.4 Pest Population Increase
		7.4 Losses, Damages and Thresholds
			7.4.1 Definition of Losses and Yields
			7.4.2 Relating Disease and Pests to Losses
			7.4.3 Thresholds
		7.5 Monitoring Disease, Pathogen/Pest Populations, the Environment, and Pesticide Resistance
			7.5.1 Monitoring Disease
			7.5.2 Monitoring Pathogen and Pest Populations
			7.5.3 Monitoring of the Environment
			7.5.4 Monitoring Fungicide and Insecticide Resistance
		7.6 Disease Risk Estimation (Disease Forecasting), Decision Making
		7.7 Integrated Disease Management: Selecting the Best Control Method
		7.8 Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 8: Diagnostics and Identification of Diseases, Insects and Mites
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Plant Pathogen Diagnostics
			8.2.1 Immunological Methods
			8.2.2 DNA-Based Methods
			8.2.3 Barcode Sequences
			8.2.4 Quantitative PCR
			8.2.5 Droplet Digital PCR
			8.2.6 In Field Diagnostics Methods
			8.2.7 Isothermal Amplification in the Field
			8.2.8 Microarray
			8.2.9 High throughput Sequencing
		8.3 Detection and Identification of Insects and Mites
			8.3.1 Arthropod Molecular Markers
			8.3.2 Molecular Markers for Phylogeny and Phylogeography
			8.3.3 Molecular Markers for Biological Control
			8.3.4 Arthropod Trophic Interactions
		8.4 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 9: Host Plant Resistance to Pests and Pathogens, the Genetic Leverage in Integrated Pest and Disease Management
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 From Natural Plant Resistance in Genetic Resources to Commercial Resistant Cultivars
		9.3 Assessment of Resistance Parameters
		9.4 Genetic Determinism of Plant Resistance
		9.5 Molecular Mechanisms of the Plant-Pest and Pathogen Interaction
		9.6 Sustainability of Crop Resistance
		9.7 Prospects
		References
	Chapter 10: Cultural Methods for Greenhouse Pest and Disease Management
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Recent Changes in Pest, Disease and Climate Control Practices
			10.2.1 From Curative Towards Preventative Pest and Disease Control
			10.2.2 Limiting Energy Consumption in Greenhouses
			10.2.3 Artificial Light Technologies
		10.3 Systems Approach to Pest and Disease Management
			10.3.1 Pest and Disease Tetrahedron
			10.3.2 Effects of Cultural Methods on Biological Control
			10.3.3 Crop Resistance and its Linkage to the Greenhouse Environment and Biological Control
			10.3.4 Monitoring and Scouting
		10.4 Start of the Cropping Cycle
			10.4.1 Sanitation of Greenhouse Structures
			10.4.2 Disinfestation of the Soil or Substrate
			10.4.3 Clean Seed and Planting Material
			10.4.4 Removal of Non-crop Plants and Crop Residues
		10.5 Exclusion of Insect Pests During the Cropping Cycle
		10.6 Direct and Indirect Influences of the Greenhouse (Micro)climate on Pests and Diseases
			10.6.1 Introduction
			10.6.2 Crop Microclimate Versus Greenhouse Macroclimate
			10.6.3 Temperature
			10.6.4 Humidity
			10.6.5 Light
			10.6.6 Other Climatic Factors
			10.6.7 Context-Dependency of the Effect of Climatic Factors on Pests and Diseases
		10.7 Direct and Indirect Influences Crop Management Practices on Pests and Diseases
			10.7.1 Growing Medium
			10.7.2 Fertilisation
			10.7.3 Irrigation
		10.8 Knowledge Integration and Decision Making
		References
	Chapter 11: Seed and Propagative Material
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Tomato and Pepper
		11.3 Cucurbit Crops
		11.4 Leafy Vegetable Crops
			11.4.1 Fungi
			11.4.2 Oomycetes
			11.4.3 Bacteria
			11.4.4 Virus Diseases
		11.5 Ornamentals
			11.5.1 Fusarium Wilts
		References
	Chapter 12: Soil and Substrate Health
		12.1 Introduction
			12.1.1 Impact of Soilborne Pests in Greenhouse Production
			12.1.2 Challenges in Maintaining Soil Health
		12.2 Approaches and Strategies to Maintain Soil and Substrate Health in Greenhouses
			12.2.1 The Industrial Conventional Approach
			12.2.2 Systems-Based Approach
			12.2.3 Organic Farming
		12.3 Soil Disinfestation and Reducing Inoculum Potential
			12.3.1 Soil Fumigation
				12.3.1.1 Combinations of Fumigants
			12.3.2 Steaming
			12.3.3 Hot Water
			12.3.4 Soil Solarization
			12.3.5 Aerobic Soil Disinfestation
			12.3.6 Anaerobic Soil Disinfestation
			12.3.7 Combining Disinfestation Methods
				12.3.7.1 Combining Solarization with Pesticides
				12.3.7.2 Combining Solarization with Organic Amendments
		12.4 Sanitation and Additional Tools
			12.4.1 Disinfestation of Greenhouse Structure
			12.4.2 Root Destruction at the End of the Crop Season
		12.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Prospects
		References
	Chapter 13: Biocontrol Agents Against Diseases
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Definitions and Strategy of Biocontrol in Greenhouse Crops
		13.3 Biocontrol against Plant Diseases
			13.3.1 Examples of Biocontrol Agents Used Against Soil-Borne Diseases
			13.3.2 Examples of Biocontrol Agents Used Against Foliar Diseases
		13.4 Modes of Action of Biocontrol Agents
			13.4.1 Direct Effect on the Plant Pathogen
			13.4.2 Interference with the Pathogenicity Process
			13.4.3 Induced Resistance
		13.5 Determinant of Efficacy
			13.5.1 Environmental Conditions
			13.5.2 Ecological Competence of Microorganisms, Dose Effect, Timing of Applications and Quality of the Preparations
			13.5.3 Targeted Plant Pathogen
		13.6 Use of Biocontrol Agents in Integrated Pest Management Strategies
		13.7 Future Prospects
		References
	Chapter 14: Biological Control Agents for Control of Pests in Greenhouses
		14.1 A Short History of Natural Enemy Use for Pest Control in Greenhouses
		14.2 Biological Control of the Main Groups of Pests
			14.2.1 Major Groups of Biocontrol Agents Available for Greenhouse Pest Management
				14.2.1.1 Acari
				14.2.1.2 Coleoptera
				14.2.1.3 Diptera
				14.2.1.4 Hemiptera
				14.2.1.5 Hymenoptera
				14.2.1.6 Nematoda
				14.2.1.7 Neuroptera
				14.2.1.8 Microorganisms
					Bacteria
					Fungi
					Baculoviruses
		14.3 Searching for and Evaluation of Biological Control Agents
		14.4 Mass Production, Storage, Release, and Quality Control of Biological Control Agents
		14.5 Recent Popularity of Polyphagous Predators: Pros and Cons
		14.6 Use of Semiochemicals in Greenhouse IPM
		14.7 Future Developments of Biological Control of Greenhouse Pests
		References
	Chapter 15: Chemical and Natural Pesticides in IPM: Side-Effects and Application
		15.1 Side-Effects
			15.1.1 Selectivity
			15.1.2 Phytotoxicity
			15.1.3 Pesticide Resistance and Strategies to Counteract It
			15.1.4 Residues
		15.2 Fumigants
		15.3 Influence of Mode and Timing of Pesticide Application
		15.4 Natural Products, Including Resistance Inducers
		15.5 Concluding Remarks
		References
Part III: Implementation of IPM in Major Greenhouse Crops
	Chapter 16: Implementation of Integrated Pest and Disease Management in Greenhouses: From Research to the Consumer
		16.1 Research on and Development of BCAs in the Framework of IPDM Programmes
			16.1.1 Fundamentals of BC
			16.1.2 Application of BCAs Under Practical Conditions
			16.1.3 Commercial Development of BCAs
		16.2 Transfer of New IPDM Technology to Extension Services and Growers
			16.2.1 Demonstration Trials
			16.2.2 Technical Support and Role of the Extension Service
			16.2.3 Training and Education
		16.3 The Market for Biological Pest Control in Greenhouses
			16.3.1 Area of Protected Crops
			16.3.2 Biological Control Products
				16.3.2.1 Changes of the Mass Rearing Systems
				16.3.2.2 Improvement of Releasing Methods
			16.3.3 Actual Biological Control Market
		16.4 Marketing, Distribution and Logistics
			16.4.1 Conditions for Success with IPDM
			16.4.2 Local or Central Production of BCAs?
			16.4.3 The Value Chain in IPDM
		16.5 Benefits from the Replacement of Pesticides by Biological Control
		16.6 Regulatory Issues
		16.7 Constraints and Future Considerations About Implementation of IPDM
		References
	Chapter 17: Tomatoes
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Pests and Diseases
			17.2.1 Insects and Mites
			17.2.2 Diseases
		17.3 Components of IPM
			17.3.1 Sanitation Measures
			17.3.2 Resistant Varieties
			17.3.3 Cultural Control During the Cropping Season
			17.3.4 Biological Control, Biopesticides and Biostimulants
				17.3.4.1 Insects and Mites
				17.3.4.2 Diseases
			17.3.5 Selective Chemical Control
				17.3.5.1 Insect and Mites
				17.3.5.2 Diseases
		17.4 IPM Programmes
			17.4.1 Factors Limiting Wider Application
			17.4.2 Future of IPM in Relation to Greenhouse Tomatoes
		References
	Chapter 18: Sweet Peppers
		18.1 Introduction
		18.2 Main Pest and Disease Problems
			18.2.1 Pests
				18.2.1.1 Aphids
				18.2.1.2 Thrips
				18.2.1.3 Mites
				18.2.1.4 Caterpillars
				18.2.1.5 Whiteflies
				18.2.1.6 Plant and Stink Bugs
				18.2.1.7 Pepper Weevil
			18.2.2 Diseases
				18.2.2.1 Fungal and Oomycetal Diseases
					Soilborne Diseases
					Powdery Mildew
					Grey Mould
					Internal Fruit Rot
				18.2.2.2 Viral Diseases
				18.2.2.3 Nematodes
		18.3 Integrated Pest Management: Problems and Perspectives
			18.3.1 Future Challenges
		References
	Chapter 19: Cucurbits
		19.1 Introduction
		19.2 Main Pest and Disease Problems
			19.2.1 Pests
				19.2.1.1 Spider Mites
				19.2.1.2 Whiteflies
				19.2.1.3 Thrips
				19.2.1.4 Aphids
				19.2.1.5 Caterpillars
				19.2.1.6 Minor Pests
			19.2.2 Diseases
				19.2.2.1 Powdery Mildew
				19.2.2.2 Downy Mildew
				19.2.2.3 Grey Mould
				19.2.2.4 Gummy Stem Blight
				19.2.2.5 Pythium Root and Stem Base Rot
				19.2.2.6 Hairy Root Disease
				19.2.2.7 Fusarium Wilts
			19.2.3 Viruses
				19.2.3.1 Control of Primary Infections
				19.2.3.2 Control of Secondary Spread
				19.2.3.3 Control of the Effect of the Infection on the Plant
			19.2.4 Nematodes
		19.3 Integrated Pest Management: Problems and Perspectives
			19.3.1 Current Challenges
			19.3.2 Future Challenges
		References
	Chapter 20: IPM for Protecting Leafy Vegetables Under Greenhouses
		20.1 Introduction
		20.2 Main Diseases and Pests
			20.2.1 On the Roots
				20.2.1.1 Diseases
				20.2.1.2 Pests
			20.2.2 On the Collar
				20.2.2.1 Diseases
				20.2.2.2 Pests
			20.2.3 On the Leaves
				20.2.3.1 Diseases
				20.2.3.2 Pests
		20.3 IPM Levers and Available Strategies
			20.3.1 IPM Lever Categories and Their Targets
				20.3.1.1 Cultural Control
				20.3.1.2 Healthy Seed and Seedlings
				20.3.1.3 Optimal Choice of the Variety
				20.3.1.4 Alternative Practices for Soil Pests and Diseases Management
				20.3.1.5 Biological Control
				20.3.1.6 Alternative Substances to Pesticides Against Pests and Diseases
				20.3.1.7 Decision Making Tools
				20.3.1.8 Chemical Control/Spray Application
		20.4 IPM Strategies, Taking into Account Levers Complementarity and Interactions
		20.5 Perspectives for Development of IPM in Leafy Vegetable Production
		References
	Chapter 21: Implementation of IPDM in Strawberries and Other Berries
		21.1 Introduction
		21.2 Resistant Cultivars
		21.3 Cultural Practices
		21.4 Substrate Disinfestation with Fumigation Alternatives
		21.5 Manipulating Environmental Conditions
		21.6 Biological Control
		21.7 Botanical Control
		21.8 Chemical Control
		21.9 Mechanical or Physical Control
		21.10 Microbial Control
		21.11 Entomovectoring or Beevectoring of Beneficial Microbes
		21.12 Non-conventional Chemicals and Induced Resistance
		21.13 General Guidelines for IPDM
		21.14 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 22: Integrated Pest and Disease Management in Greenhouse Ornamentals
		22.1 Overall Introduction
		22.2 Important Disease and Arthropod Problems in Different Ornamental Crop Sectors
			22.2.1 Bedding Plants
				22.2.1.1 Seeds and Other Propagative Starter Material
				22.2.1.2 Growing Medium
				22.2.1.3 Production Time and Season
				22.2.1.4 Variety of Bedding Plant Species Grown in the Same Greenhouse
			22.2.2 Potted Foliage Plants
				22.2.2.1 Seeds and Other Propagative Starter Material
				22.2.2.2 Growing Media and Irrigation
				22.2.2.3 Production Time, Season and Location
			22.2.3 Flowering Potted Plants
				22.2.3.1 Seeds/Propagative Starter Material/Tissue Culture/Bulbs
				22.2.3.2 Growing Medium
				22.2.3.3 Production Time and Season
			22.2.4 Cut Flowers and Cut Foliage
				22.2.4.1 Starting Material
				22.2.4.2 Substrate
				22.2.4.3 Climate
				22.2.4.4 Long Crop Cycles
				22.2.4.5 Pests Specific to This Crop Type
				22.2.4.6 Phytosanitary Regulations for International Trade
				22.2.4.7 Post-Harvest
		22.3 Techniques and Tools for Accomplishing IPDM
			22.3.1 Plant Solutions
				22.3.1.1 Plant Breeding for Resistance
				22.3.1.2 Induced Resistance
				22.3.1.3 Transgenics
				22.3.1.4 Plant Nutrition
			22.3.2 Environmental Solutions
				22.3.2.1 Greenhouse Climate
				22.3.2.2 Substrate Conditions
				22.3.2.3 Sanitation and Exclusion
				22.3.2.4 Mass Trapping
			22.3.3 Control Agents
				22.3.3.1 Biological Control, General
				22.3.3.2 Biological Control for Insect and Mite Pests
				22.3.3.3 Biological Control of Diseases
				22.3.3.4 Chemical Control of Insect and Mite Pests
				22.3.3.5 Chemical Control of Diseases
			22.3.4 Extension Methods
		22.4 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 23: Implementation of IPDM in Greenhouses: Customer Value as Guideline
		23.1 Introduction
		23.2 Dynamics of Innovation in Food Chains
		23.3 Product Concepts
		23.4 Economic Evidence
		23.5 Entrepreneur Types
		23.6 Take-Home Message
		Annex 23.1: The Position of Farmers in Agricultural Knowledge and Innovation Systems
		References