Insect Physiology and Biochemistry

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Preface
Author Biography
Chapter 1 Embryogenesis
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Morphogenesis
		1.2.1 Egg, Fertilization, and Zygote Formation
		1.2.2 Variations in Zygotic Nucleus Cleavage, Formation of Energids, and Blastoderm Formation
			1.2.2.1 Apterygota
			1.2.2.2 Hemimetabola
			1.2.2.3 Holometabola
		1.2.3 Formation of the Germ Band
		1.2.4 Gastrulation
		1.2.5 Germ Band Elongation
		1.2.6 Blastokinesis and Extraembryonic Membranes
	1.3 Genetic Control of Embryogenesis
		1.3.1 Development of a Model for Patterning
			1.3.1.1 The bicoid Gene and Anterior Determination in Drosophila
			1.3.1.2 Posterior Group Genes and Posterior Pattern Formation
			1.3.1.3 Genes Required in the Acron and Telson
			1.3.1.4 Dorsal–Ventral Axis
	1.4 Segmentation Genes
	1.5 Homeotic Genes
		1.5.1 Homeobox
	1.6 Organogenesis
		1.6.1 Neurogenesis
		1.6.2 Development of the Gut
		1.6.3 Malpighian Tubules
		1.6.4 Tracheal System
		1.6.5 Oenocytes
		1.6.6 Wing Development
		1.6.7 Cuticle Secretion in the Embryo
		1.6.8 Cell Movements During Embryogenesis
		1.6.9 Programmed Cell Death: Apoptosis
	1.7 Hatching
	1.8 Imaginal Discs
	1.9 Summary and Conclusions
	1.10 Review and Self- Study Questions
	References Added to 4th Edition
	Foundation References
Chapter 2 Digestion
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Relationships between Food Habits and Gut Structure and Function
		2.2.1 Plant vs. Animal Origin: Solid vs. Liquid Diet
	2.3 Major Structural Regions of the Gut
		2.3.1 Foregut
		2.3.2 Midgut
		2.3.3 Hindgut
	2.4 Midgut Cell Types
		2.4.1 Columnar Cells
		2.4.2 Regenerative Cells
		2.4.3 Goblet Cells
	2.5 Microvilli or Brush Border of Midgut Cells
	2.6 Glycocalyx
	2.7 Peritrophic Matrix
		2.7.1 Functions of the Peritrophic Matrix
	2.8 Digestive Enzymes
		2.8.1 Carbohydrate-Digesting Enzymes
		2.8.2 Lipid Digesting Enzymes
		2.8.3 Protein-Digesting Enzymes
		2.8.4 Do Proteinase Inhibitors in the Food Influence Evolution of Proteinase Secreted?
	2.9 Hormonal Influence on Midgut
	2.10 Countercurrent Circulation of Midgut Contents and Absorption of Digested Products
	2.11 Transepithelial and Oxidation–Reduction Potential of the Gut
	2.12 Gut pH
	2.13 Hematophagy: Feeding on Vertebrate Blood
	2.14 Digestive System Morphology and Physiology in Major Insect Orders
		2.14.1 Orthoptera
		2.14.2 Dictyoptera
		2.14.3 Isoptera
		2.14.4 Hemiptera
		2.14.5 Homoptera
		2.14.6 Coleoptera
		2.14.7 Hymenoptera
		2.14.8 Diptera
		2.14.9 Lepidoptera
	2.15 Insect Gut as a Potential Target for Population Management and Control of the Spread of Plant and Animal Disease Organisms
	2.16 Summary/Conclusions
	2.17 Review and Self-Study Questions
	References Added to 4th Edition
	Foundation References
Chapter 3 Nutrition
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Importance of Balance and Self-Selection of Nutritional Components
	3.3 Ability of Insects to Self-Select Nutritional Components
	3.4 Requirements for Specific Nutrients
		3.4.1 Nitrogen Source: Proteins and Amino Acids
		3.4.2 Amino Acids
		3.4.3 Carbohydrates
		3.4.4 Lipids
		3.4.5 Sterols
		3.4.6 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
		3.4.7 Vitamins
		3.4.8 Minerals
	3.5 Techniques and Dietary Terms Used in Insect Nutrition Studies
	3.6 Criteria for Evaluating Nutritional Quality of a Diet
	3.7 Measures of Food Intake and Utilization
	3.8 Phagostimulants
	3.9 Feeding Deterrents
	3.10 Summary and Conclusions
	3.11 Review and Self-Study Questions
	References Added to 4th Edition
	Foundation References
Chapter 4 Integument and Molting
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Structure of the Integument
		4.2.1 Cuticulin Envelope
		4.2.2 Epicuticle
		4.2.3 Procuticle
		4.2.4 Pore Canals and Wax Channels
		4.2.5 Epidermal Cells
	4.3 Molting and Formation of New Cuticle
		4.3.1 Apolysial Space
		4.3.2 Molting Fluid Secretion
		4.3.3 New Cuticle Formation
		4.3.4 Reabsorption of Molting Fluid
	4.4 Ecdysis
		4.4.1 Shedding the Old Cuticle: Ecdysis of the Adult
		4.4.2 Post-Ecdysis Wing Expansion and Water Proofing the New Cuticle
		4.4.3 Sclerotization of Cuticle
	4.5 Chemical Composition of Cuticle
		4.5.1 Chitin
		4.5.2 Biosynthesis of Chitin
		4.5.3 Cuticular Proteins
		4.5.4 Resilin
		4.5.5 Stage-Specific Differences in Cuticle Proteins
		4.5.6 Protective Functions of Cuticle Proteins
		4.5.7 Cuticular Lipids
	4.6 Mineralization of Insect Cuticles
	4.7 Capture of Atmospheric Water on Cuticular Surfaces
	4.8 Summary and Conclusions
	4.9 Review and Self-Study Questions
	References Added to 4th Edition
	Foundation References
Chapter 5 Hormones and Development
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Interplay of PTTH, Ecdysteroids, and Juvenile Hormone Controls Development
	5.3 Brain Neurosecretory Cells and Prothoracicotropic Hormone (PTTH)
		5.3.1 Source and Chemistry
		5.3.2 Bioassay for PTTH Activity
		5.3.3 Stimuli for Secretion of PTTH
		5.3.4 Secretion of PTTH after Brain Activation by Stretch Receptors
		5.3.5 Gated PTTH Secretion in Tobacco Hornworm
		5.3.6 Secretion of PTTH after Brain Activation by Cold Exposure
		5.3.7 Regulation of Tissue and Hemolymph Levels of PTTH
		5.3.8 Mode of Action of PTTH
	5.4 Prothoracic Glands and Ecdysteroids
		5.4.1 Biosynthesis of Ecdysone
		5.4.2 Conversion of Ecdysone into 20-Hydroxyecdysone
		5.4.3 Molecular Diversity in the Structure of the Molting Hormone
		5.4.4 Assays for Ecdysteroids
		5.4.5 Radioimmunoassay for Ecdysone and Related Ecdysteroids
		5.4.6 Assay by Physicochemical Techniques
		5.4.7 Tissues and Cell Cultures Used in Assays
		5.4.8 Degradation of Ecdysone
		5.4.9 Virus Degradation of Host Ecdysteroids
		5.4.10 Dependence of Some Parasitoids on Host Ecdysteroids
	5.5 Corpora Allata and Juvenile Hormones
		5.5.1 Glandular Source and Chemistry of Juvenile Hormones
		5.5.2 Assays for JH Activity
		5.5.3 Regulation of the Tissue and Hemolymph Levels of JH
		5.5.4 Growth Regulators and Compounds Cytotoxic to the Corpora Allata
		5.5.5 Cellular Mode of Action and Receptors for JH
		5.5.6 Downstream Transcription Factors
	5.6 Mode of Action of Ecdysteroids at the Gene Level
		5.6.1 Chromosomal Puffs
		5.6.2 Identification and Isolation of an Ecdysteroid Receptor
		5.6.3 Differential Tissue and Cell Response to Ecdysteroids
	5.7 Possible Timer Gene in the Molting Process
	5.8 Ecdysone–Gene Interaction Ideas Stimulated Vertebrate Work
	5.9 Development of Eyespots in Wings of Lepidoptera
	5.10 Summary and Conclusions
	5.11 Review and Self-Study Questions
	References Added to 4th Edition
	Foundation References
Chapter 6 Biological Rhythms
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Characteristics of Circadian and Photoperiodic Rhythms
	6.3 Molecular Basis for the Circadian Clock
	6.4 Evidence for Clock Genes in Many Insects
		6.4.1 Circadian Regulation of Hormone Secretion
		6.4.2 Circadian Clock Influence in Peripheral Organs and Tissues
		6.4.3 Circadian Clock Influence in Social Behavior of Honeybees
		6.4.4 Circadian Clock Influence in Reproduction
	6.5 Photoperiodic Response: One Clock, Two Clocks, or Multiple Clocks?
	6.6 Clock Models Based on Experimental Responses of Insects to Varying Light/Dark Regimes
		6.6.1 Hourglass Model
		6.6.2 External Coincidence Model
		6.6.3 Internal Coincidence Model
		6.6.4 Resonance Model
		6.6.5 Summary Results from Model Experiments
	6.7 Summary and Conclusions
	6.9 Review and Self-Study Questions
	References Added to 4th Edition
	Foundation References
Chapter 7 Diapause
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Diapause: A Survival Strategy
	7.3 Phases of Diapause
		7.3.1 Prediapause: Induction and Preparation
		7.3.2 Diapause: Initiation and Maintenance
		7.3.3 Diapause Termination
	7.4 Hormonal Control of Diapause
		7.4.1 Embryonic Diapause
		7.4.2 Larval Diapause
		7.4.3 Pupal Diapause
		7.4.4 Adult Diapause/Reproductive Diapause
	7.5 Role of Daily and Seasonal Biological Clocks in Diapause
	7.6 Diapause and Gene Expression
	7.7 Nutrient Accumulation for Diapause and the Storage and Conservation of Nutrients During Diapause
	7.8 Molecular Studies of Diapause
	7.9 A Pre-Diapause Strategy – Cold Tolerance
	7.10 Summary and Conclusions
	7.11 Review and Self-Study Questions
	References Added to 4th Edition
	Foundation References
Chapter 8 Intermediary Metabolism
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Energy Demands for Insect Flight
	8.3 Metabolic Stores
		8.3.1 Carbohydrate Resources
			8.3.1.1 Trehalose Resources
			8.3.1.2 Glycogen: Storage and Synthesis
	8.4 Hormones Controlling Carbohydrate Metabolism
	8.5 Pathways of Metabolism Supporting Intense Muscular Activity, Such as Flight
		8.5.1 Glycolysis
			8.5.1.1 The Glycerol-3-Phosphate Shuttle and Regeneration of NAD[sup(+)]
			8.5.1.2 Significance and Control of the Glycerol-3-Phosphate Shuttle.
		8.5.2 The Krebs Cycle
			8.5.2.1 Control of Krebs Cycle Metabolism and Regulation of Carbohydrate Metabolism in Flight Muscles
		8.5.3 The Electron Transport System
		8.5.4 Proline as a Fuel for Flight
		8.5.5 Mobilization and Use of Lipids for Flight Energy
			8.5.5.1 Transport of Lipids by Lipophorin
			8.5.5.2 Activation of Fatty Acids, Entry into Mitochondria, and β-Oxidation
	8.6 Summary and Conclusions
	8.7 Review and Self-Study Questions
	References Added to 4th Edition
	Foundation References
Chapter 9 The Nervous System: Anatomy and Physiology
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Central Nervous System (CNS)
	9.3 The Brain
		9.3.1 Protocerebrum
		9.3.2 Deutocerebrum
		9.3.3 Tritocerebrum
	9.4 Ventral Ganglia
	9.5 Oxygen and Glucose Supply to the Brain and Ganglia
	9.6 The Neuropil
	9.7 Hemolymph–Brain (CNS) Barrier
	9.8 Neurons: Building Blocks of a Nervous System
		9.8.1 Afferent or Sensory Neurons
		9.8.2 Efferent or Motor Neurons
		9.8.3 Interneurons
		9.8.4 Glial Cells
	9.9 Nerve Cell Responses to Stimuli
		9.9.1 Graded Responses
		9.9.2 Spike Potentials
	9.10 The Physiological Basis for Neuronal Responses to Stimuli
		9.10.1 Membrane Ion Channels: Bioelectric Potentials
		9.10.2 The Resting Potential
		9.10.3 The Action Potential: Sodium Activation
		9.10.4 Sodium Inactivation and Repolarization
		9.10.5 Measurement of Ion Fluxes: Voltage Clamp Technique
		9.10.6 Conduction of the Action Potential: Local-Circuit Theory
	9.11 The Synapse: Excitatory and Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials
		9.11.1 Acetylcholine-Mediated Synapses
		9.11.2 Nicotinic and Muscarinic Receptors in Insects
		9.11.3 Electric Transmission across Synapses
		9.11.4 Neuromuscular Junctions
	9.12 Summary and Conclusions
	9.13 Review and Self-Study Questions
	References Added to 4th Edition
	Foundation References
Chapter 10 The Nervous System: Selected Roles in Behavior
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Neuropeptides
	10.3 Selected Behaviors
		10.3.1 Sleep in Insects
		10.3.2 Learning in Insects
		10.3.3 Gustation and Feeding in Insects
	10.4 Motor Programs
		10.4.1 A Motor Program that Controls Walking
		10.4.2 A Motor Pattern for Rhythmic Breathing
		10.4.3 Escape Behavior and Trapping of Prey: Role of Giant Axons
	10.5 Summary and Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	10.6 Self-Study Questions
	References Added to 4th Edition
	Foundation References
Chapter 11 Muscles Physiology and Kinematics
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Basic Muscle Structure and Function
		11.2.1 Macro- and Microstructure of Muscle
		11.2.2 Muscle Attachments to the Exoskeleton
		11.2.3 Skeletal Muscle
		11.2.4 Polyneuronal Innervation and Multiterminal Nerve Contacts
		11.2.5 The Transmitter Chemical at Nerve–Muscle Junctions
	11.3 Synchronous and Asynchronous Muscles
	11.4 Muscle Proteins and Physiology of Contraction
		11.4.1 The Active State: Binding of Myosin Heads to Actin and the Sliding of Filaments
		11.4.2 Release of Myosin Heads from Actin
	11.5 Muscles Involved in General Locomotion, Running, and Jumping
		11.5.1 Adaptations for Running, Walking, and Survival
		11.5.2 Adaptations for Jumping
	11.6 Sound Production: Tymbal and Stridulatory Muscle
		11.6.1 Tymbal Morphology and Physiology
		11.6.2 Stridulatory Muscle Physiology
	11.7 Insect Chill Response: Neuromuscular Physiology
	11.8 Morphology and Physiology of Nonskeletal Muscle
		11.8.1 Visceral Muscles
		11.8.2 Heart Muscle
		11.8.3 Alary Muscles
	11.9 Summary and Conclusions
	11.10 Review and Self-Study Questions
	References Added to 4th Edition
	Foundation References
Chapter 12 Insect Flight
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Thoracic Structure, Wing Hinges, and Muscle Groups Involved in Flight
	12.3 Wing Strokes
	12.4 Multiple Contractions from Each Volley of Nerve Impulses to Asynchronous Muscles
	12.5 Flight in Dragonflies and Damselflies
	12.6 Aerodynamics of Lift and Drag Forces Produced by Wings
		12.6.1 Lift Forces Generated by Clap and Fling Wing Movements
		12.6.2 Lift Forces Derived from Drag and Delayed Stall
	12.7 Hovering Flight
	12.8 Control of Pitch and Twisting of Wings
	12.9 Power Output of Flight Muscles
	12.10 Metabolic Activity of Wing Muscles
	12.11 Flight Behavior
	12.12 Summary and Conclusions
	12.13 Review and Self-Study Questions
	References Added to 4th Edition
	Foundation References
Chapter 13 Sensory Systems
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 External and Internal Receptors Monitor the Environment
	13.3 General Functional Classification of Sensory Receptors
		13.3.1 Receptors with Multiple Pores
		13.3.2 Receptors with a Single Pore
		13.3.3 Receptors without Pores
	13.4 Mechanoreceptors
		13.4.1 Structure of a Simple Tactile Hair: A Mechanoreceptor Sensillum
		13.4.2 Hair Plates
		13.4.3 Chordotonal Sensilla
		13.4.4 Subgenual Organs
		13.4.5 Tympanal Organs: Specialized Organs for Airborne Sounds
		13.4.6 Johnston’s Organ
		13.4.7 Simple Chordotonal Organs
		13.4.8 Thermoreceptors and Hygroreceptors
		13.4.9 Infrared Reception
	13.5 Chemoreceptors
		13.5.1 Olfactory Sensilla: Dendritic Fine Structure
		13.5.2 Contact Chemoreceptors–Gustatory Receptors
		13.5.3 Specialists vs. Generalists among Chemoreceptors
		13.5.4 Stimulus-Receptor Excitation Coupling
	13.6 Summary and Conclusions
	13.7 Review and Self-Study Questions
	References Added to 4th Edition
	Foundation References
Chapter 14 Vision
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Compound Eye Structure
	14.3 Dioptric Structures
	14.4 Corneal Layering
	14.5 Retinula Cells
	14.6 Rhabdomeres
	14.7 Electrical Activity of Retinula Cells
	14.8 Neural Connections in the Optic Lobe
	14.9 Ocelli
	14.10 Larval Eyes: Stemmata
	14.11 Dermal Light Sense
	14.12 Chemistry of Insect Vision
	14.13 Visual Cascade
	14.14 Regulation of the Visual Cascade
	14.15 Color Vision
	14.16 Vision Is Important in Behavior
	14.17 Nutritional Need for Carotenoids in Insects
	14.18 Detection of Plane-Polarized Light
	14.19 Visual Acuity
	14.20 Summary and Conclusions
	14.21 Review and Self-Study Questions
	References Added to 4th Edition
	Foundation References
Chapter 15 Circulatory System
	15.1 Introduction: Circulatory System
	15.2 Dorsal Vessel: Heart and Aorta
		15.2.1 Alary Muscles
		15.2.2 Ostia
		15.2.3 Heartbeat
		15.2.4 Ionic Influences on Heartbeat
		15.2.5 Nerve Supply to the Heart
		15.2.6 Cardioactive Secretions
	15.3 Accessory Pulsatile Hearts
	15.4 Hemocytes
		15.4.1 Functions of Hemocytes
		15.4.2 Hemocytopoietic Tissues and Origin of Hemocytes
		15.4.3 Number of Circulating Hemocytes
	15.5 Hemolymph
		15.5.1 Functions of Hemolymph and Circulation
		15.5.2 Hemolymph Volume
		15.5.3 Coagulation of Hemolymph
		15.5.4 Hemolymph pH and Hemolymph Buffers
		15.5.5 Chemical Composition of Hemolymph
			15.5.5.1 Inorganic Ions
			15.5.5.2 Free Amino Acids
			15.5.5.3 Proteins
			15.5.5.4 Other Organic Constituents
	15.6 Rate of Circulation
	15.7 Hemoglobin
	15.8 Summary and Conclusions
	15.9 Review and Self-Study Questions
	References Added to 4th Edition
	Foundation References
Chapter 16 Immunity
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Physical Barriers to Invasion
	16.3 Recognition of Nonself
	16.4 Cellular Immune Reactions
	16.5 Synthesis of Antifungal and Antibacterial Peptides
	16.6 Toll, IMD, JNK, and JAK- STAT Are Pathways for Defense Responses
		16.6.1 Toll Pathway
		16.6.2 IMD Pathway
		16.6.3 JNK Pathway
		16.6.4 JAK-STAT Pathway
	16.7 C-Type Lectins
	16.8 Serpins
	16.9 Ecology, Behavior, and Immunity
		16.9.1 Effects of Climate Change on Insect Immune Responses
		16.9.2 Limitation of Nutritional Resources May Alter Immune Response
	16.10 Cost of Defense: To Defend or Not? What Are the Trade-Offs?
	16.11 Coevolutionary Race between Parasitoid Escape Mechanisms and Host Defense Mechanisms
	16.12 Autoimmune Consequences of Some Defense Reactions
	16.13 Gender Differences in Immune Responses
	16.14 Summary and Conclusions
	16.15 Review and Self-Study Questions
	References Added to 4th Edition
	Foundation References
Chapter 17 Respiration
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Structure of the Tracheal System
		17.2.1 Tracheae and Tracheole Structure
		17.2.2 Plasticity in the Tracheal System
		17.2.3 Spiracle Structure and Function
		17.2.4 Tracheal Epithelium
		17.2.5 Development of New Tracheoles
		17.2.6 Air Sacs
		17.2.7 Molting of Tracheae
	17.3 Tracheal Supply to Tissues and Organs
		17.3.1 Adaptations of Tracheae to Supply Flight Muscles
	17.4 Ventilation and Diffusion of Gases within the System
		17.4.1 Simple Diffusion is Usually Not Adequate
		17.4.2 Active Ventilation of Tracheae
		17.4.3 Diffusion from Tracheoles to Mitochondria
	17.5 Discontinuous Gas Exchange
	17.6 Water Balance during Flight
	17.7 Gas Exchange in Aquatic Insects
		17.7.1 Compressible Gas Gills
		17.7.2 Incompressible Gas Gills: A Plastron
		17.7.3 Use of Aquatic Plants as Air Source
		17.7.4 Cutaneous Respiration: Closed Tracheal System in Some Aquatic Insects
	17.8 Respiration in Endoparasitic Insects
	17.9 Respiratory Pigments
	17.10 Respiration in Eggs and Developing Embryos
	17.11 Nonrespiratory Functions of the Tracheal System
	17.12 Summary and Conclusions
	17.13 Review and Self-Study Questions
	References Added to 4th Edition
	Foundation References
Chapter 18 Excretion
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Malpighian Tubules
	18.3 Malpighian Tubule Cells
	18.4 Formation of Primary Urine in Malpighian Tubules
	18.5 Proton Pump as Driving Mechanism for Urine Formation and Homeostasis
	18.6 Possibilities for Selectively Disrupting Water and Ion Homeostasis for Insect Control
	18.7 Selective Reabsorption in the Hindgut
		18.7.1 Anatomical Specialization of Hindgut Epithelial Cells
		18.7.2 Secretion and Reabsorption in the Ileum
		18.7.3 Reabsorption in the Rectum
	18.8 Role of the Excretory System in Maintaining Homeostasis
		18.8.1 Electrolyte Homeostasis
		18.8.2 Water Homeostasis
			18.8.2.1 Diuretic Hormones
			18.8.2.2 Antidiuretic Hormones
		18.8.3 Acid–Base Homeostasis
		18.8.4 Nitrogen Homeostasis
			18.8.4.1 Ammonia Excretion
			18.8.4.2 Uric Acid Synthesis and Excretion
	18.9 Cryptonephridial Systems
	18.10 Summary and Conclusions
	18.11 Review and Self-Study Questions
	References Added to 4th Edition
	Foundation References
Chapter 19 Semiochemicals
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Classes of Semiochemicals
	19.3 Importance of the Olfactory Sense in Insects
	19.4 Active Space Concept
	19.5 Pheromones Classified According to Behavior Elicited
	19.6 Pheromone Parsimony
	19.7 Chemical Characteristics of Semiochemicals
	19.8 Insect Receptors and Odorant-Binding Proteins
		19.8.1 Pheromone-B inding Proteins
		19.8.2 Signal Transduction and Receptor Response
		19.8.3 Pheromone Inactivation and Clearing of the Receptor
		19.8.4 Do Insects Smell the Blend or Just the Major Components?
	19.9 Information Coding and Processing
		19.9.1 Structure of Odor Plumes
		19.9.2 Pheromone Signal Processing
	19.10 Hormonal Control of Pheromone Synthesis and Release
	19.11 Biosynthesis of Pheromones
	19.12 Geographical and Population Differences and Evolution of Pheromone Blends
	19.13 Practical Applications of Pheromones
	19.14 Summary and Conclusions
	19.15 Review and Self-Study Questions
	References Added to 4th Edition
	Foundation References
Chapter 20 Reproduction
	20.1 Introduction
	20.2 Female Reproductive System
		20.2.1 Structure of Ovaries
			20.2.1.1 Panoistic Ovarioles
			20.2.1.2 Telotrophic Ovarioles
			20.2.1.3 Polytrophic Ovarioles
			20.2.1.4 Oviposition
		20.2.2 Nutrients for Oogenesis
		20.2.3 Hormonal Regulation of Ovary Development and Synthesis of Egg Proteins
	20.3 Vitellogenins and Yolk Proteins
		20.3.1 Biochemical Characteristics of Vitellogenins and Yolk Proteins
		20.3.2 Yolk Proteins of Higher Diptera
	20.4 Sequestering of Vitellogenins and Yolk Proteins by Oocytes
		20.4.1 Patency of Follicular Cells
		20.4.2 Egg Proteins Produced by Follicular Cells
		20.4.3 Proteins in Addition to Vitellogenin and Yolk Proteins in the Egg
	20.5 Formation of the Vitelline Membrane
	20.6 The Chorion
	20.7 Gas Exchange in Eggs
	20.8 Male Reproductive System
		20.8.1 Apyrene and Eupyrene Sperm of Lepidoptera
		20.8.2 Male Accessory Glands
		20.8.3 Transfer of Sperm
	20.9 Sex Determination
	20.10 Chromosomal Systems for Gender Determination
	20.11 Summary and Conclusions
	20.12 Review and Self-Study Questions
	References Added to 4th Edition
	Foundation References
Chapter 21 Insect Symbioses
	21.1 Introduction
	21.2 Symbioses among Leaf-Cutting
Ants, Fungi, and Bacteria
	21.3 Biology of Termites
		21.3.1 Symbionts in Termites
		21.3.2 Lignocellose Structure
		21.3.3 Nitrogen Metabolism
		21.3.4 Fungal Culture
	21.4 Bark and Ambrosia Beetles and Their Symbionts
		21.4.1 Ambrosia Beetles
		21.4.2 Bark Beetles
		21.4.3 Fungal Role in Supplementing Limited Nutrients in Wood and Phloem
		21.4.4 Evolution of Fungal Feeding in Bark Beetles
		21.4.5 Bacteria as Part of the Bark Beetle Holobiont
		21.4.6 Anthropogenic Effects upon Bark Beetles and Their Symbionts
	21.5 Buchnera in Aphids
	21.6 Tsetse Fly Symbionts
	21.7 Wolbachia
		21.7.1 Cytoplasmic Incompatability Inducing Effect of Wolbachia
		21.7.2 Parthenogenesis-Inducing Effect of Wolbachia
		21.7.3 Feminizing Strains of Wolbachia
	21.8 Burkholderia in Insects
	21.9 Summary and Conclusions
	21.10 Self-Study Questions
	References Added to 4th Edition
	Foundation References
Chapter 22 Global Climate Change: Present and Future Impact on Insects
	22.1 Introduction
	22.2 How Have Insects Responded to Climate: Will Climate Change Bring Greater Damage by Insect Pests?
	22.3 Acclimation of Insects to Lower Thermal Limits: Their Response to Fluctuating and Extreme Cold
	22.4 Response of Insects to Upper Thermal Limits
	22.5 Will Tropical Insect Be More or Less Impacted by Climate Warming?
	22.6 Insect Ecophysiology and Climate Change
	22.7 Climate Change Is Driving Insect Distributions
	22.8 Climate Change: Insect Vectors and Infectious Diseases
	22.9 Summary and Conclusions
	22.10 Review and Self-Study Questions
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 23 The Genomics Revolution in Entomology
	23.1 Introduction
	23.2 Transposable Elements
		23.2.1 Horizontal and Vertical Transmission of TEs in Insects
		23.2.2 Additional Ways Transposons Aid Insects
	23.3 Evolutionarily Ancient and Conserved RNAI Pathways in Insects
		23.3.1 Functions of microRNA
		23.3.2 The PIWI RNA (piRNA) Pathway: Protection for Germline Cells
		23.3.3 Function of Short Interfering RNA (siRNA) in Insect Antiviral Immunity
	23.4 Applications of Interfering RNA in Insects
	23.5 CRISPR/Cas 9 Technology
		23.5.1 Applications of CRISPR/Cas9 System to Edit Genes in Insects
		23.5.2 Using CRISPR/Cas9 to Explore Gene Function
	23.6 Introducing Gene Editing into Educational Programs
	23.7 Summary and Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	23.8 Review and Self-Study Questions
	References
Index