Insect Pest Management: Techniques for Environmental Protection (Agriculture & Environment Series)

ACDSeePrint Job.pdf......Page 1
Insect Pest Management: Techniques for Environmental Protection......Page 2
FORTHCOMING TITLES......Page 4
Dedication......Page 5
Preface......Page 6
The Editors......Page 7
Contributors......Page 9
Contents......Page 11
SECTION I: Ecological Measures......Page 13
Table of Contents......Page 0
1.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 14
1.3 ECONOMIC INJURY LEVEL......Page 16
1.4 PEST POPULATION DYNAMICS......Page 18
1.5 SPECIES DIVERSITY AND STABILITY......Page 22
1.6 OPEN AND CLOSED ECOSYSTEMS......Page 24
1.7 MONOCULTURE VERSUS POLYCULTURE......Page 25
1.8 SCALE AND ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT......Page 26
1.9.1 Multicropping......Page 27
1.9.2 Strip Harvesting......Page 28
REFERENCES......Page 29
SECTION II: Physical Control......Page 33
CONTENTS......Page 34
2.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 35
2.2 NON-RADIANT TRAPS......Page 36
2.2.1 Bands......Page 37
2.2.2 Livestock Insect Traps......Page 38
2.2.3 Color and Traps......Page 40
2.2.5 Fermentation Traps......Page 42
2.3.1 Screens......Page 43
2.3.3 Trenches......Page 44
2.3.4 Particle Barriers......Page 45
2.3.5 Inert Dusts......Page 46
2.3.7 Shields......Page 47
2.3.8 Packaging......Page 48
2.4.1 Shaking......Page 49
2.4.3 Mechanical Disturbances......Page 50
2.4.4 Hand-destruction......Page 51
2.4.5 Pruning......Page 52
2.4.6 Hopperdozer......Page 53
2.5.1 Structures......Page 54
2.5.2 Animal Habitats......Page 55
2.5.3 Field Crops......Page 56
2.6.2 Vacuuming......Page 57
2.7 IRRIGATION......Page 58
2.8 MULCHES......Page 59
2.8.2 Floating Row Covers......Page 61
2.9 LIGHT TRAPS......Page 62
2.9.1 Electrocuting Traps......Page 63
2.10 IRRADIATION......Page 65
2.10.2 Gamma Radiation......Page 66
2.10.3 Infrared Radiation......Page 69
2.10.4 Pulsed Electric Fields......Page 70
2.11 TEMPERATURE......Page 71
2.11.1 Heat......Page 72
2.11.1.1 Steaming......Page 73
2.11.1.3 Flaming......Page 74
2.11.1.4 Radio-frequency Energy......Page 75
2.11.2 Cold......Page 77
2.12 SOUND......Page 79
2.13.1 Carbon Dioxide......Page 80
2.13.2 Carbon Dioxide and Nitrogen......Page 81
2.13.3 Carbon Dioxide and Pressure......Page 82
2.13.4 Atmosphere Generators......Page 83
2.13.5 Nitrogen Treatments......Page 84
REFERENCES......Page 85
SECTION III: Chemical Control......Page 110
CONTENTS......Page 111
3.1.1 History of Insecticide Usage......Page 112
3.1.2 Different Groups of Insecticides......Page 113
3.1.3 General Concepts on Insecticide Use and Environmental Impacts......Page 116
3.2.1 Effects of Insecticides on Microorganisms......Page 117
3.2.2 Effects of Insecticides on Aerial and Soil-Inhabiting Invertebrates......Page 118
3.2.3 Effects on Aquatic Invertebrates......Page 121
3.2.5 Effects on Amphibians and Reptiles......Page 122
3.2.8 Effects on Humans......Page 123
3.3.1 General Concepts......Page 124
3.3.2.1 Sampling Methods......Page 125
3.3.2.3 Relative Sampling......Page 126
3.3.3 Determining Insect Pest Thresholds for Economic Damage......Page 127
3.3.4 Cultural Inputs into Minimizing Pest Attack......Page 128
3.3.5.3 Alternative Hosts......Page 130
3.3.6.1 Choice of Insecticide......Page 131
3.3.6.4 Insecticide Persistence......Page 132
3.4 CONCLUSIONS ON THE ECOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF INSECTICIDE USE......Page 133
REFERENCES......Page 136
4.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 139
4.3 SELECTIVITY OF CONVENTIONAL INSECTICIDES......Page 140
4.4 SELECTIVITY OF NOVEL INSECTICIDES......Page 141
REFERENCES......Page 148
SECTION IV: Cultural Practices......Page 153
CONTENTS......Page 154
5.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 155
5.2 NATURAL ENEMY COLONIZATION......Page 156
5.2.1 Hypothesis 1 — Natural Enemy Abundance is Increased Because the Spatial Proximity of Source Populations Results in Higher Colonization......Page 157
5.2.2 Hypothesis 2 — Natural Enemy Abundance is Increased Because the Previously Occupied Habitat is no Longer Suitable, which Results in Higher Colonization......Page 160
5.2.3 Hypothesis 3 — Natural Enemy Abundance is Increased Because a Habitat is Attractive in Some Way, which Results in Higher Colonization......Page 161
5.3.1 Hypothesis 1 — Natural Enemy Abundance is Increased Because Food is More Abundant, which Results in Higher Reproduction, Longevity, and/or Survival......Page 163
5.3.2 Hypothesis 2 — Natural Enemy Abundance is Increased Because Food is Available During a Longer Period of Time, which Results in Higher Reproduction, Longevity, and/or Survival......Page 165
5.4 NATURAL ENEMY DIVERSITY......Page 167
5.5 CONCLUSIONS......Page 169
REFERENCES......Page 170
CONTENTS......Page 179
6.1.1 What Does IPM Entail?......Page 180
6.1.2 IPM: A Focus On Ecology......Page 182
6.2.1 Economics......Page 183
6.2.2 Environmental......Page 186
6.2.4 Food Safety......Page 187
6.3 DEVELOPING AN IPM SYSTEM......Page 189
6.3.1 The Adoption of IPM......Page 194
6.3.2 Measuring Integrated Pest Management......Page 196
6.3.3.1 Alfalfa Integrated Management (AIM)......Page 199
6.3.4 Marketing an IPM System......Page 201
6.4.1 Case History — The Corn/Soybean Production System......Page 202
6.4.2 New Tools — New Challenges......Page 204
REFERENCES......Page 206
SECTION V: Biological Control......Page 213
CONTENTS......Page 214
7.2 DEFINITION OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL......Page 215
7.3 HISTORY OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL......Page 216
7.4 BIOLOGICAL CONTROL — ITS ROLE IN IPM......Page 217
7.5.1 Conservation of Natural Enemies......Page 218
7.5.2 Introduction of Natural Enemies (Classical Biological Control)......Page 219
7.5.3 Augmentation of Natural Enemies......Page 220
7.6.1 Predators......Page 222
7.6.2 Parasitoids......Page 226
7.6.3 Pathogens......Page 229
7.6.3.2 Fungi......Page 231
7.6.3.3 Viruses......Page 232
7.6.3.5 Nematodes......Page 233
7.6.4.1 Sterile Insect Release......Page 234
7.7 LIMITATIONS AND RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH THE VARIOUS BIOLOGICAL CONTROL APPROACHES......Page 235
7.8 BIOTECHNOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL CONTROL......Page 236
7.9 FUTURE OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL......Page 238
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 240
REFERENCES......Page 241
CONTENTS......Page 249
8.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 250
8.1.2 Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis (Bti)......Page 251
8.1.3 Mosquitocidal Bt and Other Microbial Strains......Page 253
8.1.5 Limited Application of Bti......Page 254
8.2.1 The Polypeptides and Their Genes......Page 255
8.2.2 Accessory Proteins (P19 and P20)......Page 259
8.2.3 Extra-Chromosomal Inheritance......Page 260
8.2.4.1 Cry δ-endotoxins......Page 262
8.2.4.2 Cyt δ-endotoxins......Page 263
8.3.1 Cry δ-endotoxins......Page 264
8.3.2 Cyt1Aa δ-endotoxin......Page 265
8.3.3 Synergism......Page 267
8.3.4 The Properties of Inclusions and Their Interactions......Page 268
8.4 REGULATION OF SYNTHESIS AND TARGETING......Page 269
8.5 EXPRESSION OF BTI δ-ENDOTOXINS IN RECOMBINANT MICROORGANISMS......Page 270
8.5.1 Expression of Bti δ-endotoxins in Escherichia coli......Page 271
8.5.2 Expression of Bti δ-endotoxins in Cyanobacteria......Page 272
8.5.4 Molecular Methods for Enhancing Toxicity of Bti......Page 273
8.6 RESISTANCE OF MOSQUITOES TO BTI δ-ENDOTOXINS......Page 274
8.7 USE OF BTI AGAINST VECTORS OF DISEASES......Page 276
8.7.1.1 Production Process......Page 277
8.7.1.2 Application Methods......Page 278
8.7.1.3 Encapsulation......Page 279
8.7.1.4 Standardization......Page 280
8.7.2.2 Germany......Page 281
8.7.2.4 Peru, Ecuador, Indonesia, and Malaysia......Page 282
8.7.2.6 West Africa......Page 283
8.8 CONTROL OF OTHER DIPTERA......Page 285
8.9 FUTURE PROSPECTS......Page 286
REFERENCES......Page 287
SECTION VI: Regulatory Aspects......Page 309
CONTENTS......Page 310
9.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 311
9.2.1.1 Legal Basis......Page 312
9.2.1.3 Geographical Basis......Page 314
9.2.2.1 Background......Page 315
9.2.2.3 Imports as a Pathway......Page 316
9.2.3.2 Disapproval of Permit Applications......Page 317
9.2.3.3 Inspection......Page 318
9.3.1.1 International Trade and Plant Pest Risk......Page 319
9.3.1.3 APHIS and Risk Assessment as Defined by the SPS Agreement......Page 320
9.3.2.4 Flexible......Page 321
9.3.3.2 Overview of the Risk Assessment Process......Page 322
9.3.4.1 What Risk Assessments Can And Cannot Achieve......Page 327
9.3.5 Trade Risk Analysis and the Future......Page 328
9.4.2 Background......Page 329
9.4.2.2 Tokyo Round, GATT......Page 330
9.4.3.1 Emergence of an SPS Regime......Page 331
9.4.3.2 Basic Rights......Page 332
9.4.3.4 Relation to the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC)......Page 333
9.4.3.5 Components......Page 335
9.4.4 Summary......Page 339
LITERATURE CITED......Page 340
BIBLIOGRAPHY......Page 341
CONTENTS......Page 342
10.1 PESTICIDE REGULATION AND ITS ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES......Page 343
10.2.1 Major Amendments to Pesticide Legislation......Page 344
10.2.2.4 Safe Drinking Water Act......Page 347
10.2.2.5 State Legislation......Page 348
10.3.1 Pesticide Registration......Page 349
10.3.2 Pesticide Tolerances......Page 350
10.3.3 Data and Testing Requirements......Page 351
10.3.5 Pesticide Exemptions and Experimental Use Permits......Page 352
10.3.7 Applicator and Worker Protection Standard......Page 353
10.3.10 Regulation of Transgenic Crops......Page 354
10.4 THE ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDE REGULATION......Page 355
10.4.1.1 Regulation and Existing Pesticides: Restrictions, Cancellations, and Suspensions......Page 356
10.4.1.2 Regulation and the Number of Innovations......Page 358
10.4.1.4 Regulation and Human Health......Page 361
10.4.2.1 Regulation and Pesticide Registrations for Minor Crops......Page 364
10.4.2.2 Industry Composition......Page 366
10.4.2.3 Regulation and Biological Pesticides......Page 367
10.4.2.4 Regulation and Genetically Modified Plants......Page 368
10.4.2.5 Regulation and Pesticide Availability......Page 369
10.4.3 The Effects of the FQPA......Page 370
10.4.4 FQPA and Integrated Pest Management......Page 372
REFERENCES......Page 373