Innovative Energetic Materials: Properties, Combustion Performance and Application

Preface
Contents
Editors and Contributors
Part I Properties of Innovative Energetic Materials
1 Study of a Concept of Energetic Materials Consisting of a Solid Fuel Matrix Containing Liquid Oxidizer
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Theoretical Performance
	1.3 Combustion Model
	1.4 Mass Conservation
	1.5 Fuel/Oxidizer Energy Balances
	1.6 Characteristic Cycle Times
	1.7 Results
	1.8 Summary
	References
2 Enhancing Micrometric Aluminum Reactivity by Mechanical Activation
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Mechanical Activation
		2.2.1 General Considerations on Powder Design
		2.2.2 Case Study #1: Activated Ingredients for HREs
		2.2.3 Case Study #2: Activated Ingredients for SRMs
		2.2.4 Production of Mechanically Activated Powders
	2.3 Metal Ingredients Characterization
		2.3.1 Morphology Analysis
		2.3.2 Metal Content
		2.3.3 Thermogravimetry
	2.4 Case Study #1: Experimental Tests in Solid Fuels
		2.4.1 Material
		2.4.2 HYF Ballistics
	2.5 Case Study #2: Experimental Tests in Solid Propellants
		2.5.1 Material
		2.5.2 SP Ballistics
		2.5.3 Metal Agglomeration
	2.6 Conclusions and Future Developments
	References
3 Preparation and Energetic Properties of Nanothermites Based on Core–Shell Structure
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Fuel–Oxidizer Core–shell Nanothermites
		3.2.1 Synthesis Strategies for Fuel–Oxidizer Nanothermites
		3.2.2 Energetic Performance for Fuel–Oxidizer Core–shell Nanothermites
	3.3 Oxidizer–Fuel Core–shell Nanothermites
		3.3.1 Synthesis Strategies for Oxidizer–Fuel Nanothermites
		3.3.2 Energetic Performance for Oxidizer–Fuel Core–shell Nanothermites
	3.4 Concluding Remarks and Suggestions
	References
4 Current Problems in Energetic Materials Ignition Studies
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Terminology and Physical Pattern of the EM Ignition
	4.3 Brief Review of Experimental Methods to Record EM Transient Combustion Behavior
	4.4 Theoretical Simulation of the EM Inflammation and Ignition
	4.5 Ignition Simulation of EM with Open Reacting Surface
	4.6 Use of Ignition Delay Data for Deriving the High-Temperature Kinetic Parameters of Condensed-Phase Reaction
	4.7 Ignition Simulation for EMs with Shielded Reacting Surface
		4.7.1 Opaque EMs
		4.7.2 Semitransparent EM
	4.8 Concluding Remarks
	References
Part II Combustion Performance of Energetic Materials
5 Transient Burning of nAl-Loaded Solid Rocket Propellants
	5.1 Background
	5.2 Motivations and Objectives
	5.3 Introduction to Nanoenergetic Materials
		5.3.1 Historical Background and Chemical Energy
		5.3.2 Ultrafine Versus Nano-Sized Particles
		5.3.3 The Energy Excess Illusion
		5.3.4 First-Generation Versus Advanced nEM
		5.3.5 Energetic Applications
	5.4 Augmented Steady Ballistic Properties
	5.5 Effects of nAl on Unsteady Burning
		5.5.1 Fast Depressurization Extinction
		5.5.2 Microanalyses of Extinguished Propellant Surfaces
		5.5.3 Pressure Deflagration Limit (PDL)
		5.5.4 Subatmospheric Burning
	5.6 More Transient Burning
		5.6.1 Acoustic Damping
		5.6.2 Recoil Force
		5.6.3 Summary Effects nAl on Unsteady Burning
	5.7 Ignition
		5.7.1 Meaning of Propellant Flammability
		5.7.2 Ignition of AP-Based µAluminized Formulations
		5.7.3 Ignition of Al Particles
		5.7.4 Effects of nAl on Propellant Ignition
		5.7.5 Effects of nAlloy or nBiMe on Propellant Ignition
		5.7.6 Summary Effects nAl on Propellant Ignition
	5.8 Concluding Remarks
	References
6 Aluminized Solid Propellants Loaded with Metals and Metal Oxides: Characterization, Thermal Behavior, and Combustion
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Properties of Metal and Metal Oxide Powdery Additives
		6.2.1 Chemical and Phase Composition
		6.2.2 Size Distribution and Morphological Properties
		6.2.3 Reactivity Parameters
		6.2.4 Compatibility of Propellant Components with Powdery Additive
	6.3 Energy, Kinetic, and Ballistic Properties of Metallized Solid Propellants with Metals and Metal Oxides
		6.3.1 Ballistic Properties of Metallized Propellants with Aluminum Nanopowder Additive
		6.3.2 Ballistic Properties of Metallized Propellants with Metal Nanopowder Additive
		6.3.3 Ballistic Properties of Metallized Propellants with Metal Oxide Nanopowder Additive
		6.3.4 Comparison of Effects of Metal and Metal Oxide Additives
	6.4 Conclusion
	References
7 Bimetal Fuels for Energetic Materials
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Experimental Methods
		7.2.1 The Tested EM Samples
		7.2.2 Ignition of EM
		7.2.3 Combustion of EM
		7.2.4 The Properties of CCP
	7.3 Results and Discussion
		7.3.1 Thermal Analysis Data
		7.3.2 Ignition Parameters
		7.3.3 Combustion Characteristics of EM
		7.3.4 Characteristics of CCP
	7.4 Conclusions
	References
8 Combustion/Decomposition Behavior of HAN Under the Effects of Nanoporous Activated Carbon
	8.1 Introduction
		8.1.1 Hydroxylammonium Nitrate
		8.1.2 Carbonized Rise Husk
	8.2 Experimental Part
		8.2.1 Burning Tests
		8.2.2 The Differential Thermal Analysis
	8.3 Results and Discussion
		8.3.1 The Combustion Experiments in High-Pressure Chamber
		8.3.2 Experimental Studies of Thermal Analysis of HAN Decomposition with AC by DTA–TG
		8.3.3 The Results of EI–MS
	8.4 Conclusion
	References
9 Combustion of Ammonium Perchlorate: New Findings
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Combustion of Ammonium Perchlorate Monopropellant
		9.2.1 Literature on Combustion of Ammonium Perchlorate
		9.2.2 LPDL of Composite Solid Propellants
		9.2.3 Experiments
		9.2.4 Results and Discussion
	9.3 Combustion of AP with Additives
		9.3.1 Introduction
		9.3.2 Literature Review on AP with Additives
		9.3.3 Results and Discussion
	9.4 Modeling of AP Monopropellant Combustion
		9.4.1 Combustion Model
		9.4.2 Governing Equations
		9.4.3 Kinetic Details
		9.4.4 Initial and Boundary Conditions
		9.4.5 Choice of Parameters and Intrinsic Stability
		9.4.6 New Parameters of AP Monopropellant Combustion Model
		9.4.7 Effect of Heat Loss on AP Monopropellant Combustion
	9.5 Summary
	References
10 Recent Achievements and Future Challenges on the Modeling Study of AP-Based Propellants
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Modeling of AP Monopropellant Combustion
		10.2.1 Theoretical Formulations
		10.2.2 Detailed Gas-Phase Kinetics
		10.2.3 Comparison of Modeling Results
	10.3 Modeling of AP-Based Composite Propellants Combustion
		10.3.1 Gas-Phase Controlled Models
		10.3.2 Condensed-Phase Models
		10.3.3 One-Dimensional Modeling of AP Composites Combustion
		10.3.4 Two-Dimensional Modeling of AP Composites Combustion
		10.3.5 Multidimensional Modeling of AP Composites Combustion (Molecular Dynamics Simulations)
	10.4 Conclusions
	References
11 Survey of Low-Burn-Rate Solid Rocket Propellants
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Solid Propellant Burn Rate–What Impacts It?
	11.3 Oxidizer Particle Type and Packing
	11.4 Impact of SRM Design
	11.5 Impact of Grain Manufacturing Processes
	11.6 Motor Firing Conditions
	11.7 Binder Utilisation
	11.8 Use of Alternative Oxidizers to Ammonium Perchlorate and Energetic Materials
		11.8.1 Ammonium Nitrate
		11.8.2 HMX
		11.8.3 RDX
		11.8.4 Other Oxidizers
	11.9 Burn Rate Suppressants
		11.9.1 Oxamide
		11.9.2 Ammonium Salts
		11.9.3 Lithium Fluoride
	11.10 Applications of Low-Burn-Rate Solid Rocket Propellant
		11.10.1 Missiles and Artillery
		11.10.2 Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles
		11.10.3 Drones
		11.10.4 Gas Generators
		11.10.5 Space Applications
	11.11 Outlook on Further Propellant Development and Utilisation
	11.12 Conclusions
	References
12 Burning Rate of PVC—Plastisol Composite Propellants and Correlation Between Closed Vessel and Strand Burner Tests Data
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Experimental
		12.2.1 Formulation and Raw Ingredients
		12.2.2 Solid Rocket Propellant Burning Rate Determination
		12.2.3 Strand Burner Test
		12.2.4 Closed Vessel Test
		12.2.5 Closed Vessel with Operculum Test
	12.3 Results and Discussion
		12.3.1 Correlation Between the Results of the Two Different Burning Rate Tests
		12.3.2 Strand Burner
		12.3.3 Closed Vessel
		12.3.4 Influence of the Nature of Oxidizer on the Propellant Burning Rate
		12.3.5 Influence of the Plasticizer
		12.3.6 Observation of the Combustion “Quality”
	12.4 Conclusion
	References
Part III Application of Energetic Materials in Chemical Propulsion
13 Modern Approaches to Formulation Design and Production
	13.1 Introduction
		13.1.1 Flow Diagram for Formulation Development
	13.2 Modeling and Prediction
	13.3 Synthesis—Crystallization, Etc.
		13.3.1 Constraints on New Materials
		13.3.2 Co-crystallization
		13.3.3 Novel Approaches
		13.3.4 Polymorphism
		13.3.5 Crystal Quality
		13.3.6 Nanomaterials
		13.3.7 Binders
		13.3.8 Trace Ingredients
	13.4 Characterization and Testing
		13.4.1 Chemical Characterization and Testing
		13.4.2 Physical Characterization and Testing
		13.4.3 Insensitive Munitions
	13.5 Environmental Impact
		13.5.1 Toxicity [52]
		13.5.2 Contamination [53, 54]
	13.6 Life Management and Disposal
	13.7 Formulation and Processing
		13.7.1 Processing Constraints and Approaches
		13.7.2 Casting
		13.7.3 Extrusion
		13.7.4 Pressing
		13.7.5 Novel Methods
	13.8 Final Remarks
	References
14 Method of Model Agglomerates and Its Application to Study the Combustion Mechanisms of Al, Al+B, and Ti Particles
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Fundamentals of the Experimental Research of the Evolution of Burning Metal Particles
	14.3 Combustion of Al Agglomerates and Al Particles
	14.4 Combustion of Al+B Agglomerates
	14.5 Combustion of Ti Agglomerates
	14.6 Conclusions and Future Plans
	References
15 Deagglomeration and Encapsulation of Metal and Bimetal Nanoparticles for Energetic Applications
	15.1 Synthesis of Bimetallic Nanoparticles and the Study of Their Properties
	15.2 Synthesis of Metal Particles of Al/Mg Alloy and the Study of Their Properties
	15.3 Development of Aluminum and Bimetallic Nanoparticles with Core–Shell Metal-Binder and Metal-High Energetic Matrix Structures
	15.4 Development of Model HEM Containing Active and Passive Binders, Effective Oxidizers, and Metal Nanoparticles
		15.4.1 Preparation of Al/HTPB Paste
	15.5 Conclusions
	References
16 Effects of Innovative Insensitive Energetic Materials: 1,1-Diamino-2,2-Dinitroethylene (FOX-7) on the Performance of Solid Rocket Propellants
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Experimental
		16.2.1 Raw Materials
		16.2.2 Molecular Dynamic Simulations
		16.2.3 Formulations
		16.2.4 Preparation of Propellants
		16.2.5 Equipment and Experimental
	16.3 Results and Discussion
		16.3.1 Microstructure Physico-Chemical Properties of FOX-7
		16.3.2 Compatibility Test
		16.3.3 Simulation Results and Discussion
		16.3.4 Effect of FOX-7 on the Energetic Properties of Solid Propellant
		16.3.5 Effect of FOX-7 on the Combustion Performance of Solid Propellant
		16.3.6 Effect of FOX-7 on the Thermal Decomposition of Solid Propellant
		16.3.7 Effect of FOX-7 on the Hazardous Properties of Solid Propellant
		16.3.8 Effect of FOX-7 on the Mechanical Properties of Solid Propellant
	16.4 Conclusions
	References
17 Simulation of Condensed Products Formation at the Surface of a Metalized Solid Propellant
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Agglomeration of a Metal Fuel
		17.2.1 Model of the Propellant Microstructure
		17.2.2 Model of Agglomerating Particles Evolution on the Surface of a Burning Propellant
		17.2.3 Model of the Agglomerating Particle Separation from the Propellant Surface
		17.2.4 Calculation of Agglomerates Characteristics
		17.2.5 Interim Summary
	17.3 Smoke Oxide Particles Formation
		17.3.1 Smoke Oxide Particles Formation During Combustion of Non-agglomerating Metal
		17.3.2 Smoke Oxide Particles Formation During Burning of Agglomerate Metal
		17.3.3 Synthesis of Smoke Oxide Particles Formation Models
		17.3.4 The Model Analysis
	17.4 Conclusions
	References