Information Warfare in the Age of Cyber Conflict

Contents
Figures
Tables
Contributors
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Acronyms
1. Introduction
	Defining information warfare in the age of cyber conflict
	Information warfare's increasing pervasiveness and importance
	Plan of the book
	Notes
	Reference
PART I: The nature, history and correlates of information warfare in the age of cyber conflict
2. The convergence of information warfare
	Computer subversion as information warfare
	IW in the niche of cyber war
	Implications of variance, non-lethality, ambiguity, and persistence
	Co-mingling IW elements
	The future of US information warfare
	Notes
3. A brief history of fake: Surveying Russian disinformation from the Russian Empire through the Cold War and to the present
	The Okhrana and the birth of modern active measures
	Early post-revolutionary disinformation and propaganda
	The post-war period and rise of modern active measures
	Building fake: ‡infektions and body parts
	Offensive information: defensive counter-information
	Notes
4. The ideological battlefield: China's approach to political warfare and propaganda in an age of cyber conflict
	The existential challenge and emerging opportunities
	Political warfare in current and historical perspective
	Information Operations in Chinese Military Strategy
	The "three warfares" in action
	Potential emerging techniques and capabilities
	Notes
5. Cyber conflict at the intersection of information operations: Cyber-enabled information operations, 2000-2016
	Defining cyber-enabled information operations
		Information warfare
		The evolving understanding of cyber operations
		Cyber-enabled information operations
	Research design
	Findings and analysis
	Russia versus the World Anti-Doping Agency
		Narrative
		Assessment
	The India–Pakistan rivalry
		Narrative
		Assessment
		Case study summaries
	Conclusions
	Notes
	References
Part II: (Cyber-enabled) Information at war
6. Bear market? Grizzly steppe and the American marketplace of ideas
	The marketplace of ideas is really a marketplace of values
		Except that it ain't so: the marketplace of values
	What happened in 2016
		The market is large and competition is fierce
		The importance of elite cues and the limits of credibility laundering
		Polarization blunts the impact of political messages
	Conclusion
	Note
	References
7. Commanding the trend: Social media as information warfare
	Introduction
	Commanding the trend in social media
	Trending social media
	Propaganda primer
	Social networks and social media
	Hijacking social media: the case of IS
		IS commanding the trend
	Russia: masters of manipulation
		#PrayforMizzou
		Influencing the 2016 Presidential Election
	The future of weaponized social media
	Conclusion
	Notes
8. Cyber by a different logic: Using an information warfare kill chain to understand cyber-enabled influence operations
	The rise of cyber-enabled information warfare
	The need to threat model information operations
		Defining interference in the digital age
		Threat modeling the attack surface of democracies: current scope and shortcomings
	An information warfare kill chain: assumptions and tactical realities
		Underlying assumptions
		Operationalizing distortion
	The information warfare kill chain
	Cyber operations and information operations in the 2010s
	Implications for defense and deterrence
	Notes
9. Cyber-enabled information warfare and influence operations: A revolution in technique?
	Human cognition: hot and cold approaches
		Hot cognition
		Cold cognition
		Interaction of hot and cold cognition
	Cascading structures of cyberspace: from technology to information
	Information warfare/influence operation typologies
	Cognitive effects of information warfare/influence operations
		High connectivity and low cost
		Low information latency and multiple distribution points
		Disintermediation of information
	Containing the effects of information warfare/influence operations
		Disrupting information encoding
		Exploiting affective states
	Moving forward
	Notes
	References
Part III: Building resilience: Questions of legality, diplomacy and society
10. Might or byte(s): On the safeguarding of democracy in the digital age
	Introduction
	The civil–military problematique
	Altering the civil–military problematique in the digital age
		Bringing in private actors: a digital age problematique and theory of civil–military relations
		Empirics
		Theories of military effectiveness in democracies
		Explaining civil–military–society relations in the digital age with "civ–mil" theory
	Constructing civil–military research agendas for cyber conflict and information warfare
		Determining patterns of civil–military–society engagement
		Driving research questions
	Back to the future: remembering the role of information in civil–military regimes
	Notes
	References
11. On the organization of the U.S. government for responding to adversarial information warfare and influence operations
	On the importance of information warfare and influence operations
	Cyber war, information warfare, and influence operations
		Future cyber-enabled capabilities for IW/IO
			Faked documents
			Name-matched use of personal information obtained from multiple sources
			Exploitation of emotional state
			AI-driven chatbots indistinguishable from human beings
			Realistic video and audio forgeries
	Organizing the U.S. government to deal with information warfare and influence operations
		On the First Amendment: some constitutional constraints on government action
		U.S. government departments and agencies with some possible role in addressing adversary information warfare and influence operations
		The bad fit of U.S. government authorities for addressing adversary information warfare and influence operations
	Conclusion
	Notes
12. Virtual disenfranchisement: Cyber election meddling in the grey zones of international law
	Introduction
	The context
	Breach of legal obligation
		Violation of sovereignty
		Intervention
		Due diligence
		Other breaches of international law
	Attribution
	Responses
	Reflections on the grey area
	Notes
13. Stigmatizing cyber and information warfare: Mission impossible?
	Introduction
	The cyber threat
	Understanding norms
		Constitutive and regulative norms
		Norm evolution: the norm life cycle
	Norm evolution theory for emerging technology weapons
		The case for norm evolution theory for emerging-technology weapons
		Stigma and its impact on norm evolution
	Stigma: the manifestation of a global prohibition
		How WMD became, and remain stigmatized: an overview of the process.
		Stigmatizing cyber warfare
	Conclusions and recommendations
	Notes
PART IV: The fluid shape of modern information warfare
14. How deep the rabbit hole goes: Escalation, deterrence and the "deeper" challenges of information warfare in the age of the Internet
	How cyber-enabled information warfare might lead to conflict escalation
	Deterring cyber-enabled information warfare
		Deterrence challenges in the digital age
		Differentiating deterrence of cyber conflict and information warfare
		Encouraging a stability–instability paradox for information warfare
	Curiouser and curiouser: looking forward to AI-enabled information warfare
	Notes
Index