Information Visualization: Perception for Design

Information Visualization: Perception For Design
Copyright
Preface
About the Author
One - Foundations for an Applied Science of Data Visualization
	Visualization Stages
	Experimental Semiotics Based on Perception
	Semiotics of Graphics
		Are Pictures Arbitrary?
	Sensory versus Arbitrary Symbols
		Properties of Sensory Representation
		Testing Claims About Sensory Representations
		Representations That Are Arbitrary
		The Study of Arbitrary Conventional Symbols
	Gibson’s Affordance Theory
	A Model of Perceptual Processing
		Stage 1. Parallel Processing to Extract Low-Level Properties of the Visual Scene
		Stage 2. Pattern Perception
		Stage 3. Visual Cognition
	Costs and Benefits of Visualization
	Types of Data
		Entities
		Relationships
		Attributes of Entities or Relationships
		Data Dimensions: 1D, 2D, 3D, …
		Types of Numbers
		Uncertainty
		Operations Considered as Data
	Metadata
	Conclusion
Two - The Environment, Optics, Resolution, and the Display
	The Environment
		Visible Light
		Ecological Optics
		Optical Flow
		Textured Surfaces and Texture Gradients
		The Paint Model of Surfaces
	The Eye
		Visual Angle Defined
		Lens
		Optics and Augmented Reality Systems
		Optics in Virtual Reality Displays
		Chromatic Aberration
		Receptors
		Simple Acuities
		Acuity Distribution and the Visual Field
		Brain Pixels and the Optimal Screen
		Spatial Contrast Sensitivity Function
		Visual Stress
	The Optimal Display
		Aliasing
		Number of Dots
		Superacuities and Displays
		Temporal Requirements of the Perfect Display
	Conclusion
Three - Lightness, Brightness, Contrast, and Constancy
	Neurons, Receptive Fields, and Brightness Illusions
		Simultaneous Brightness Contrast
		Mach Bands
		The Chevreul Illusion
		Simultaneous Contrast and Errors in Reading Maps
		Contrast Effects and Artifacts in Computer Graphics
		Edge Enhancement
	Luminance, Brightness, Lightness, and Gamma
		Constancies
		Luminance
		Displaying Details
		Brightness
		Monitor Gamma
		Adaptation, Contrast, and Lightness Constancy
		Contrast and Constancy
		Contrast on Paper and on Screen
	Perception of Surface Lightness
		Lightness Differences and the Gray Scale
		Contrast Crispening
	Monitor Illumination and Monitor Surrounds
	Conclusion
four - Color
	Trichromacy Theory
		Color Blindness
	Color Measurement
		Change of Primaries
		Chromaticity Coordinates
		Color Differences and Uniform Color Spaces
	Opponent Process Theory
		Naming
		Cross-Cultural Naming
		Unique Hues
		Neurophysiology
		Categorical Colors
	Properties of Color Channels
		Spatial Sensitivity
		Stereoscopic Depth
		Motion Sensitivity
		Form
	Color Appearance
		Screen Surrounds
		Color Constancy
		Color Contrast
		Saturation and Chroma
		Brown
	Applications of Color in Visualization
	Application 1: Color Specification Interfaces and Color Spaces
		Color Spaces for Choosing Colors
		Color Naming and Color Sample Systems
		Color Palettes
	Application 2: Color for Labeling (Nominal Codes)
	Application 3: Pseudocolor Sequences for Data Maps
		Uniformity and Resolving Power
		Overall Feature Resolving Power
		Perceptual Monotonicity, Luminance, and Form Perception
		Spiral Colormaps
		Interval Pseudocolor Sequences
		Representing Zero with Colormaps
		Sequences for the Color Blind
		Bivariate Color Sequences
	Application 4: Color Reproduction
	Conclusion
Five - Visual Salience: Finding and Reading Data Glyphs
	Eye Movements
		Accommodation
		The Eye Movement Control Loop
	V1, Channels, and Tuned Receptors
		Visual Channel Theory
		The Elements of Form and Texture
		A Differencing Mechanism for Fine Discrimination
		Feature Maps, Channels, and Lessons for Visual Search
	Preattentive Processing and Ease of Search
		Attention and Expectations
		Highlighting and Asymmetries
		Coding with Combinations of Features
		Coding with Redundant Properties
		What Is Not Easily Findable: Conjunctions of Features
		Highlighting Two Data Dimensions: Conjunctions That Can Be Seen
	Integral and Separable Dimensions: Glyph Design
		Restricted Classification Tasks
		Speeded Classification Tasks
		Integral-Separable Dimension Pairs
	Representing Quantity
		Length, Area, and Volume
		Subitizing
		Monotonicity
		Representing Absolute Quantities
		Multidimensional Discrete Data: Uniform Representation versus Multiple Channels
		Stars and Whiskers
	The Searchlight Metaphor and Cortical Magnification
		Useful Field of View
		Tunnel Vision, Stress, and Cognitive Load
		The Role of Motion in Attracting Attention
		Motion as a User Interrupt
	Conclusion
Six - Static and Moving Patterns
	Gestalt Laws
		Proximity
		Similarity
		Connectedness
		Continuity
		Symmetry
		Closure and Common Region
		Figure and Ground
		More on Contours
		Representing Vector Fields: Perceiving Orientation and Direction
		Comparing 2D Flow Visualization Techniques
		Showing Direction
	Showing Speed
		Animated 2D Flow Visualization
	Texture: Theory and Data Mapping
		Tradeoffs in Information Density: an Uncertainty Principle
		Primary Perceptual Dimensions of Texture
		Texture Contrast Effects
		Other Dimensions of Visual Texture
		Nominal Texture Codes
		Laciness
		Using Textures for Univariate and Multivariate Map Displays
		Quantitative Texture Sequences
	Perception of Transparency with Uniform Colors
		Perceiving Patterns in Continuous Line Charts
	Perceiving Patterns in Multidimensional Discrete Data
	Pattern Perception and Deep Learning
		Priming
	The Visual Grammar of Node-link Diagrams
	The Visual Grammar of Maps
	Patterns in Motion
		Form and Contour in Motion
		Moving Frames
		Expressive Motion
		Perception of Causality
	Perception of Animated Motion
		Enriching Diagrams with Simple Animation
	The Processes of Pattern Finding
Seven - Space Perception
	Depth Cue Theory
		Perspective Cues
		The Duality of Depth Perception in Pictures
		Pictures Seen from the Wrong Viewpoint
		Fish-Tank Virtual Reality
		Occlusion
		Shape From Shading
		Shading Models
		Cushion Maps
		Surface Texture
		Cast Shadows
		Ambient Occlusion
		Distance Based on Familiar Size
		Depth of Focus
		Eye Accommodation
		Structure from motion
		Eye Convergence
		Stereoscopic Depth
		Problems with Stereoscopic Displays
		Frame Cancellation
		The Vergence-Focus Problem
		Distant Objects
		Making Effective Stereoscopic Displays
		Cyclopean Scale
		Virtual Eye Separation
		Artificial Spatial Cues
	Depth Cues in Combination
	Task-Based Space Perception
	Tracing Data Paths in 3D Graphs
	Judging the Morphology of Surfaces
		Conformal Textures
		Guidelines for Displaying Surfaces
		Bivariate Maps—Lighting and Surface Color
	Patterns of Points in 3D Space
	Perceiving Patterns in 3D Trajectories
	Judging Relative Positions of Objects in Space
	Judging the Relative Movements of Self Within the Environment
	Selecting and Positioning Objects in 3D
	Judging the “up” Direction
	The Aesthetic Impression of 3D Space (Presence)
	Conclusion
Eight - Visual Objects and Data Objects
	Image-Based Object Recognition
		Searching an Image Database
		Surveillance Videos and Life Logging
		Memorability of Visualizations
		Object and Pattern Size for Optimal Identification
		Priming
	Structure-Based Object Recognition
		Geon Theory
		Silhouettes
	The Object Display and Object-Based Diagrams
		The Geon Diagram
	3D Glyphs
	Faces
	Coding Words and Images
		Mental Images
	Labels and Concepts
		Object Categorization
		The Enactive View
		Canonical Views and Object Recognition
	Concept Mapping
		Concept Maps and Mind Maps
	Iconic Images versus Words versus Abstract Symbols
		Static Links
	Scenes and Scene Gist
		Priming, Categorization, and Trace Theory
	Conclusion
Nine - Images, Narrative, and Gestures for Explanation
	The Nature of Language
		Sign Language
		Language is Dynamic and Distributed Over Time
		Is Visual Programming a Good Idea?
		Visual Programming for Children
		Images versus Sentences and Paragraphs
		Links Between Images and Words
	Integrating Visual and Verbal and the Narrative Thread
		Linking Text with Graphical Elements of Diagrams
		Gestures as Linking Devices in Verbal Presentations
		Deixis
		Symbolic Gestures
		Expressive Gestures
	Animated versus Static Presentations
	Visual Narrative for Explanation
	Introduction and Initial Framing
		Ongoing Reframing and Narrative Transitions
		Controlling Attention in a Narrative Sequence
		Cinematic Devices for Directing Attention
		Animated Images
		Visual Rhetorical Devices and the Representation of Uncertainty
	Conclusion
Ten - Interacting with Visualizations
	Data Selection and Manipulation Loop
		Choice Reaction Time
		Two-Dimensional Positioning and Selection
		Hover Queries
		Path Tracing
		Two-Handed Interaction
		Skill Learning
		Control Compatibility
	Exploration and Navigation Loop
		Locomotion and Viewpoint Control
		Wayfinding, Cognitive Maps, and Real Maps
		Frames of Reference
		Egocentric Frame of Reference
		Allocentric Frames of Reference
		Map Orientation
		Spatial Navigation Metaphors for 3D Interfaces
		Magnified Views
	Interfaces with less Literal Metaphors
		Interfaces for Nonmetaphoric Spatial Navigation
		Distortion Techniques
		Rapid Zooming Techniques
		Magic Lenses
	Nonmetaphoric Interactions with Nonspatial Data
		Drill Down
		The Drill Down Epistemic Action Cost Hierarchy
		Cross View Brushing
		Dynamic Queries
		Generalized Fisheye Views
	Network Zooming
		Near Neighbor Highlighting in Networks
		Table Manipulations
		Parallel Coordinates or Scatterplot Matrix
	Conclusion
Eleven - Thinking With Visualizations
	The Cognitive System
	The Predicting Brain
	Memory and Attention
		Working Memories
		Visual Working Memory Capacity
		Visual Working Memory for Visual Comparisons
		Change Blindness
		Spatial Information
		Attention
		Vigilance
		Attention Switching and Interruptions
	Visualizations and Mental Images
		Object Files, Coherence Fields, and Gist
	Long-Term Episodic Memory and World Modeling
		Concepts
	Knowledge Formation
		Knowledge Generalization
	Cognitive Biases and Automatic Processing
		Sensemaking with Cognitive Tools
			Reasoning with a Hybrid of Visual and Mental Imagery
			Design Sketching
	Review of Visual Cognitive System Components
		General Cognition
		Working Memories
		Long-term Memory
		Visual Queries
		Epistemic Actions
Twelve - Designing Cognitively Efficient Visualizations
	The Process
	Step 1: High-Level Cognitive Task Description
	Step 2: Data Inventory
	Step 3: Cognitive Task Refinement
		Who, What
		Where
		When
		How: Combinations of Who, What, Where, and When
		Why
	Step 4: Identification of Appropriate Visualization Types
		Charts
		Maps
		Network Diagrams
		Composites
	Step 5. Applying Visual Thinking Design Patterns for Cognitive Efficiency
	Visual Monitoring
		Characteristics of Monitoring
		Cognitive Work Flow
	Drill Down
		Limits on Drilling Down on Hierarchical Structures
	Find Local Patterns in Small to Medium-Sized Networks
	Seed-then-Grow
	Pattern Comparisons in a Large Information Space
		Zooming
		Magnifying Windows
		Snapshot Gallery
		Nested Graph with Intelligent Zooming
	Cross-View Brushing
	Dynamic Queries
	Model-Based Interactive Planning
		Choosing Which Interaction Design Pattern(s) to Implement
	Step 6 Prototype Development
	Step 7: Evaluation and Design Refinement
	Conclusion
	Useful Textbook References
		General Books on Visualization
		User Interface Design
		Human Perception
		Human Cognition
		Programming Visualizations from Scratch
A - Changing Primaries
B - CIE Color Measurement System
C - Guidelines
	Chapter 1
	Chapter 2
	Chapter 3
	Chapter 4
	Chapter 5
	Chapter 6
	Chapter 7
	Chapter 8
	Chapter 9
	Chapter 10
	Chapter 11
	Chapter 12
Bibliography
Author Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	J
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	M
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	P
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Subject Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	Q
	R
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	T
	U
	V
	W
	X
	Z