Influencing through argument

Contents......Page 6
Notes About the Updated Edition......Page 16
Robert Huber, 1909–1996: A Life of Influence and Integrity......Page 18
Argument Widely Used......Page 22
Argument Defined......Page 23
The Processes of Argument and the Processes of Reasoning......Page 24
Growing Demands for Argument......Page 25
In Education and Learning......Page 26
In Inquiries and Investigations......Page 27
In Debate......Page 28
Elements of the Study of Argument......Page 29
Exercises......Page 30
Propositions as Subjects for Argument......Page 32
Fact......Page 33
Policy......Page 34
Is It Timely?......Page 35
Is It Suitable for Oral Presentation?......Page 36
Is It Clear Rather than Ambiguous?......Page 37
Is It Significant Enough to Be Worthy of Discussion?......Page 38
Does the Proposition Involve a Single Subject?......Page 39
Debates......Page 40
Public Discussions......Page 41
Exercises......Page 42
Analysis Defined......Page 44
Subdivide by One Principle......Page 45
Uncover All the Parts......Page 46
Utilize a Significant Principle......Page 47
Be Sure that a Proper Interrelationship Among the Headings Is Present......Page 48
Definition of Main Issues......Page 49
Propositions of Fact......Page 51
Propositions of Value......Page 52
Propositions of Policy......Page 53
Chronological......Page 55
Topical......Page 56
Psychological......Page 57
Logical......Page 58
Logical Definition......Page 60
Definition by Comparison......Page 61
Definition by Negation......Page 62
Definition by Authority......Page 63
The Steps in Preliminary Analysis......Page 64
Complete or Continuing Analysis......Page 65
Listening......Page 66
Writing Examinations......Page 67
Exercises......Page 68
Necessity of an Organized System of Gathering Material......Page 74
Importance of Your Own Knowledge and Thinking......Page 75
Personal Interviews......Page 76
Observation......Page 77
Conducting Original Experiments and Research......Page 78
Have a Research Plan......Page 79
Utilize Library Resources......Page 80
Internet Research......Page 85
Recording Your Data......Page 86
Exercises......Page 90
Definition of Evidence......Page 92
Statistics......Page 93
Documents, Legal Papers, and the Like......Page 94
The Authority Has Made a Study......Page 95
The Authority Is Free from Prejudice......Page 96
The Authority Is Consistent......Page 97
The Authority Quoted Did Not Make a Study......Page 98
The Authority Quoted Was Not Trained in Research......Page 99
The Authority Quoted Is Guilty of Exaggeration......Page 100
Arguments to Validate and Invalidate Statistics......Page 101
Are the Statistical Units an Accurate Index of What We Want to Know?......Page 102
Are the Statistical Units Comparable in Terms of Size and Relevance?......Page 104
Do Other Studies of the Same Nature Verify These Facts?......Page 105
Did the Witness Have the Opportunity to Observe the Happening Directly?......Page 106
Does the Testimony of the Witness Constitute an Admission?......Page 107
Tests for Documents and Legal Papers......Page 108
Exercises......Page 109
Propositions with Which Induction Is Effective......Page 112
Characteristics of Induction......Page 113
Induction and the Sampling Process......Page 114
Induction and Public Opinion Polls......Page 115
Induction and Experimental Study......Page 116
Induction and the Empirical Method......Page 117
Induction and Universal Laws......Page 118
Are the Facts True?......Page 119
Do the Examples Cover a Sufficient Period of Time?......Page 120
Are the Examples Cited Typical or Atypical?......Page 121
Are There Significant Negative Instances?......Page 122
Is the Conclusion Properly Stated?......Page 124
The “What Harm?” or “So What?” Argument......Page 125
Exercises......Page 127
Deductive Reasoning Defined......Page 130
The Syllogism and Its Parts......Page 131
The Enthymeme......Page 132
Categorical Deduction......Page 133
Disjunctive Deduction......Page 142
Hypothetical Deduction......Page 145
Sorites......Page 147
Deduction in Argumentative Speeches......Page 148
Proposition of Value......Page 149
Proposition of Policy......Page 150
A Summary of Lines of Argument on Deduction......Page 151
Exercises......Page 153
Propositions with Which Causal Reasoning Is Effective......Page 156
Causal Reasoning Defined......Page 157
Effect-to-Cause Reasoning......Page 158
Effect-to-Effect Reasoning......Page 159
Causal Lines of Argument......Page 160
Is This the Sole Cause or Are There Other Causes?......Page 161
Is This Cause Significant or Insignificant?......Page 162
Is This an Original or Contributing Cause?......Page 163
Are There or Will There Be Counteracting Causes?......Page 164
Has Coincidence Been Mistaken for Causal Relationship?......Page 165
Exercises......Page 166
Propositions with Which Reasoning from Analogy Is Effective......Page 170
Reasoning from Analogy Defined......Page 171
Relationship to Causal Reasoning......Page 172
Do the Differences Outweigh the Similarities?......Page 173
Summary of Lines of Argument by Analogy......Page 174
Summary of the Interrelationships of the Various Types of Reasoning......Page 175
Exercises......Page 176
Definition......Page 178
Refutation by Challenging Analysis and Definition......Page 179
Refutation by Denying the Evidence......Page 180
Refutation by Demonstrating the Opposite......Page 181
Assuming a More General Truth that Involves the Point at Issue......Page 182
The Fallacious Question......Page 183
Argument Involving Persons (Argumentum ad Hominem)......Page 184
Shifting Ground......Page 185
An Appeal to the Ignorance of the Opposite......Page 186
Fallacy of Division......Page 187
Reducing the Argument to an Absurdity (Reductio ad Absurdum)......Page 188
Adopting Opposing Arguments (Turning the Tables)......Page 189
Method of Residues......Page 190
The Dilemma......Page 191
Exposing Inconsistencies......Page 192
Exposing Irrelevant Arguments......Page 194
Exercises......Page 195
Constituent Elements in Persuasion: Logos, Pathos, Ethos, and Style......Page 198
Capturing and Holding Attention......Page 199
Appeals to Blocked Wants—The Hate Object......Page 201
Appeals to Symbols of Identification......Page 202
Appeals to Sentiments......Page 203
Appeals to Prejudice......Page 204
How to Use Emotional Appeals with Argumentative Speeches......Page 205
Choosing Effective Words......Page 209
Utilizing Effective Sentence Structure......Page 210
Utilizing Special Rhetorical Devices......Page 212
Keeping the Speech Moving Toward a Goal......Page 215
The Power of Position and Reputation......Page 217
The Power of Personality......Page 218
The Power of an Effective Voice......Page 219
The Power of Effective Use of the Body......Page 222
Enthusiastic Desire to Obtain a Response—Avoid Artificialities......Page 225
Exercises......Page 226