Infectious Disease Ecology of Wild Birds

Cover
Infectious Disease Ecology of Wild Birds
Copyright
Foreword
	References
Preface
Contents
List of Contributors
Chapter 1: A Bird’s Eye View of Avian Disease Ecology
	Literature cited
Chapter 2: The Nature of Host–Pathogen Interactions
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Causation of disease
		2.2.1 Hosts
		2.2.2 Pathogens and parasites
			2.2.2.1 Microparasites and macroparasites
			2.2.2.2 Routes of transmission
			2.2.2.3 Virulence and pathogenicity
		2.2.3 Vectors
		2.2.4 Environment
	2.3 Host–parasite interaction: infection timeline
		2.3.1 Progression of host’s disease state
		2.3.2 Progression of host’s infectious state
		2.3.3 Linking states of infection to compartmental models
		2.3.4 Withinhost dynamics: pathogenesis
			2.3.4.1 Exposure and colonization
			2.3.4.2 Attachment and invasion
			2.3.4.3 Pathogen replication and activation of host immune response
			2.3.4.4 Resistance and tolerance
			2.3.4.5 Pathogen shedding/exit
	2.4 Developing pathogenspecific immunity
		2.4.1 Maternal transfer of antibodies
	2.5 Detecting and quantifying a host’s infection status
		2.5.1 Visual detection
		2.5.2 Microscopy
		2.5.3 Molecular detection
		2.5.4 Experimental manipulations of infection status
		2.5.5 Immunological assays
			2.5.5.1 Antibody persistence
	2.6 Populationlevel disease dynamics
	2.7 Summary
	Literature cited
Chapter 3: Ecoimmunology
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Overview of the avian immune system
		3.2.1 The innate immune system
		3.2.2 The adaptive immune system
		3.2.3 An integrated response to infection
	3.3 Drivers of variation in immune defense
		3.3.1 Sex
		3.3.2 Age
		3.3.3 Life history stage
		3.3.4 Environmental stressors and physiological stress responses
			3.3.4.1 Environmental stressors: food availability
			3.3.4.2 Environmental stressors: anthropogenic factors
			3.3.4.3 Physiological stressors: oxidative stress
			3.3.4.4 Physiological stressors: endocrinemediated stress response
			3.3.4.5 Relationships among individual and environmental factors and immune responses
	3.4 Quantifying variation in immune defenses
	3.5 Bridging the first gap: do immune phenotypes predict infection status or host fitness?
	3.6 Bridging the second gap: do withinhost measures inform populationlevel transmission dynamics?
	3.7 Conclusions
	Literature cited
Chapter 4: Behavior Shapes Infectious Disease Dynamics in Birds
	4.1 Conceptual overview: the intersection of behavior and disease ecology
	4.2 Behaviors important to parasite exposure, resistance, and spread
		4.2.1 Antiparasite behaviors
			4.2.1.1 Preening
			4.2.1.2 Deterrence of aerial parasites
			4.2.1.3 Nest ‘selfmedication’
		4.2.2 Sickness behaviors
			4.2.2.1 Manifestations and putative function of sickness behaviors in birds
			4.2.2.2 Contextspecific sickness behaviors
			4.2.2.3 Sickness behaviors and transmission
		4.2.3 Foraging and movement behaviors
			4.2.3.1 Foraging behavior and exposure risk
			4.2.3.2 Migration and disease dynamics
			4.2.3.3 Effects of disease on movement and foraging
		4.2.4 Personality
			4.2.4.1 Personality and exposure
			4.2.4.2 Personality and resistance
			4.2.4.3 Personality and infection spread
		4.2.5 Mate choice and sexual selection
			4.2.5.1 Reproductive strategies and exposure
			4.2.5.2 Reproductive strategies and resistance
			4.2.5.3 Reproductive strategies and pathogen spread
		4.2.6 Social behavior
			4.2.6.1 Transmission routes and social behavior
			4.2.6.2 Dominance behavior
			4.2.6.3 Collective defense behaviors
	4.3 Synthesis and future directions
	Literature cited
Chapter 5: Host–Pathogen Evolution and Coevolution in Avian Systems
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Evolutionary responses of avian hosts to their pathogens
		5.2.1 Preventing infection
		5.2.2 Reducing the costs of infection
			5.2.2.1 Life history changes
			5.2.2.2 Resistance and tolerance
				Evidence from avian immune genes
				Evidence of phenotypic evolution
	5.3 Evolutionary responses of pathogens to their avian hosts
		5.3.1 Molecular evolution
			5.3.1.1 West Nile virus (WNV)
		5.3.2 Adaptive phenotypic responses of pathogens
			5.3.2.1 Empirical evidence in birds
	5.4 Coevolution of avian hosts and their pathogens
		5.4.1 Macroevolutionary studies
		5.4.2 Microevolutionary studies
			5.4.2.1 Spatial adaptation experiments
			5.4.2.2 Temporal adaptation experiments
	5.5 Conclusions and implications
	Literature cited
Chapter 6: Fitness Effects of Parasite Infection in Birds
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Effects of parasites on host survival
		6.2.1 What is needed to show parasitemediated differences in survival?
		6.2.2 What evidence is there that parasites influence individual survival in birds?
			6.2.2.1 Parasite characteristics that impact effects on host survival
			6.2.2.2 Host characteristics that impact parasite effects on survival
	6.3 Effect of parasites on reproductive success
		6.3.1 Breeding phenology, pairing success, and parentage
		6.3.2 Clutch size
		6.3.3 Hatching success and/or brood size
		6.3.4 Fledging success
		6.3.5 Parental provisioning rates, parental care, and transgenerational effects
		6.3.6 Apparent positive effects of parasite infection on fecundity
	6.4 Contextdependence of fitness effects
	6.5 Summary
	Literature cited
Chapter 7: Wild Bird Populations in the Face of Disease
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Tools for assessing effects of parasites on avian populations
		7.2.1 Describing infection status in avian populations
			7.2.1.1 Prevalence
			7.2.1.2 Estimating host population size
			7.2.1.3 Mark- recapture methods
			7.2.1.4 Occupancy methods to estimate prevalence
		7.2.2 Parasite population size
			7.2.2.1 Parasite load
			7.2.2.2 Parasite aggregation
		7.2.3 Epidemiological modeling
			7.2.3.1 Compartmental models
			7.2.3.2 Agent- and individual- based models
			7.2.3.3 Social network analysis and network models
		7.2.4 Additional tools and resources
	7.3 Effects of parasites and pathogens on avian host populations
		7.3.1 Parasites and declines in avian host population size
			7.3.1.1 Case study: Trichomonas gallinae
			7.3.1.2 Case study: West Nile virus
		7.3.2 Parasites and avian host population growth
			7.3.2.1 Case study—avian blood parasites
		7.3.3 Host population regulation and fluctuation linked to parasites
			7.3.3.1 Case study—Mycoplasma gallisepticum
			7.3.3.2 Case study—Trichostrongylus tenuis
		7.3.4 Local extinctions of host populations
	7.4 Lessons learned
	Literature cited
Chapter 8: CommunityLevel Interactions and Disease Dynamics
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Community structure and function
		8.2.1 Community ecology and the place of birds
		8.2.2 Parasites in communities
	8.3 Community diversity and parasite/ pathogen circulation
		8.3.1 Interspecific host heterogeneity
		8.3.2 Changing biodiversity
		8.3.3 Parasite communities within avian communities
			8.3.3.1 Parasite infracommunity
			8.3.3.2 Parasite component community
			8.3.3.3 Parasite metacommunity (or supracommunity)
		8.3.4 Modified communities
	8.4 An example of Lyme borreliosis in seabird communities
		8.4.1 The biological system
			8.4.1.1 Seabird communities
			8.4.1.2 Ticks and the circulation of Lyme borreliosiscausing agents
		8.4.2 Population structure of Ixodes uriae within and among seabird communities
		8.4.3 Understanding spatial patterns of Lyme borreliosis within and among avian communities
			8.4.3.1 Within and among seabird colonies
			8.4.3.2 Linking marine and terrestrial enzootic cycles
	8.5 Summary and future directions
	Literature cited
Chapter 9: Land Use Change and Avian Disease Dynamics
	9.1 Introduction
		9.1.1 Major drivers of land use change
	9.2 Key changes associated with land use and influences on disease dynamics
		9.2.1 Habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation
		9.2.2 Chemical pollutants (toxicants)
			9.2.2.1 Heavy metals
			9.2.2.2 Persistent organic pollutants
			9.2.2.3 Other chemical pollutants
		9.2.3 Light and noise pollution
		9.2.4 Anthropogenic resources
			9.2.4.1 Supplemental feeding
			9.2.4.2 Unintentional anthropogenic resources
	9.3 Overall consequences of land use change for avian parasitism: urbanization as a case study
	9.4 Synthesis: need for multidisciplinary approaches
	Acknowledgments
	Literature cited
Chapter 10: Climate Change and Avian Disease
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Infection consequences of changes in bird distribution and phenology
		10.2.1 Latitudinal and elevational shifts in avian breeding ranges
			10.2.1.1 Changes in nonbreeding range and movement patterns
		10.2.2 Changes in timing of life history events through the annual cycle
	10.3 Changes in bird physiology, behavior, and response to infection
		10.3.1 Changes in immunity and infection impacts
		10.3.2 Changes in behavior
	10.4 Effects of climate change on parasites with external transmission stages
		10.4.1 Vectorborne and trophically transmitted parasites
		10.4.2 Environmentally transmitted pathogens
	10.5 Synthesis and future research directions
	Literature cited
Chapter 11: Pathogens from Wild Birds at the Wildlife–Agriculture Interface
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Avian use of agricultural operations
		11.2.1 Degree of use of agricultural operations by synanthropic birds
		11.2.2 Identification of focal synanthropic avian species
	11.3 Host types and pathways for pathogen contamination by birds
		11.3.1 Host types
		11.3.2 Types of pathways for contamination
		11.3.3 Spillover versus spillback
	11.4 Pathogen prevalence and transmission in wild birds
		11.4.1 Major pathogens of concern
			11.4.1.1 Bacterial pathogens
			11.4.1.2 Newcastle Disease virus
			11.4.1.3 Avian influenza viruses
	11.5 Contamination potential of agricultural operations by birds
	11.6 Longdistance movements and pathogen introductions
	11.7 Future directions
	Literature cited
Chapter 12: Pathogen Transmission at the Expanding Bird–Human Interface
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Examples of zoonoses at the intersection of wild bird, domestic bird, and human populations
		12.2.1 Human surveillance for avian zoonoses—a call for more
	12.3 Ecological and evolutionary factors important for zoonotic emergence at the wild bird–human interface
	12.4 Birds as vehicles for the movement of arthropod vectors and pathogens of human health concern
	12.5 Reverse zoonoses (anthroponoses): examples of pathogen transmission from humans to birds
	12.6 Parasite interactions in birds—implications for human health
	12.7 Management strategies to minimize avian zoonoses
	12.8 Summary
	Literature cited
Chapter 13: A Flight Path Forward for Avian Infectious Disease Ecology
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 A flight path for avian disease ecology that crosses scales and disciplines
	13.3 Leveraging existing strengths to promote innovation
	13.4 A flight path forward for avian infectious disease ecology, management, and conservation
	13.5 Conclusions
	Literature cited
Index