Industrial Applications of Nanocellulose and Its Nanocomposites

Front Cover
Industrial Applications of Nanocellulose and Its Nanocomposites
Copyright
Contents
Contributors
Editors‘ biographies
Preface
Chapter 1 Introduction to nanocellulose production from biological waste
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Types of nanocellulose
	1.3 Properties of nanocellulose
	1.4 Pretreatments of natural fibers
	1.5 Nanocellulose preparation
	1.6 Nanocellulose from biological waste
		1.6.1 Ginger
		1.6.2 Water hyacinth
		1.6.3 Kenaf
		1.6.4 Sugarcane
		1.6.5 Sugar palm
	1.7 Applications of nanocellulose
	1.8 Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 2 Economic insights into the production of cellulose nanofibrils from oil palm biomass
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Materials and method
		2.2.1 Materials
		2.2.2 SHS and KOH pretreatments for hemicellulose removal
		2.2.3 Mechanical fibrillation using wet disk milling
		2.2.4 Characterization analysis
		2.2.5 Economic analysis
	2.3 Results and discussion
		2.3.1 Pulps properties produced from OPMF
		2.3.2 CNF properties produced using wet disk milling
		2.3.3 Mass balance of CNF production by superheated steam—Wet disk milling (SHS-WDM) and potassium hydroxide—Wet disk ...
		2.3.4 Economic evaluation of CNF production by superheated steam—Wet disk milling (SHS-WDM) and potassium hydroxide—W ...
	2.4 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 3 Nanocellulose: Sustainable biomaterial for developing novel adhesives and composites
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Lignocellulosic biomaterials
		3.2.1 Cellulose
		3.2.2 Lignin
		3.2.3 Hemicellulose
		3.2.4 Others
	3.3 Bionanomaterials
		3.3.1 Nanocellulose
		3.3.2 Nanolignin
		3.3.3 Nanohemicellulose
	3.4 Cellulose-based micro/nanomaterials
		3.4.1 NFC
		3.4.2 CNC
		3.4.3 BC
	3.5 Nanocellulose-reinforced adhesives
		3.5.1 Thermosetting resins
		3.5.2 Thermoplastic resins
		3.5.3 Bioresins
	3.6 Nanocellulose-reinforced composites
		3.6.1 Biocomposites (wood-based composites)
			3.6.1.1 Particle-based wood composites
				Particleboard
				Oriented strand board (OSB)
			3.6.1.2 Fiber-based wood composites
				Medium-density fiberboard (MDF)
			3.6.1.3 Veneer-based wood composites
				Plywood
				Laminated veneer lumber (LVL)
				Parallel-strand lumber (PSL)
				Glued-laminated timber (glulam)
		3.6.2 Polymer composites/nanocomposites
			3.6.2.1 Metal-based nanocomposites
			3.6.2.2 Metal oxide and other inorganic-based nanocomposites
			3.6.2.3 Nanocarbon-based nanocomposites
	3.7 Conclusions and future perspectives
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 4 Nanocellulose-based aerogels for various engineering applications
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Polymer aerogels—Definition and applications
	4.3 Natural polymer-based aerogels and cellulose-based aerogels
	4.4 Cellulose- and nanocellulose-based aerogels
	4.5 Applications of nanocellulose-based aerogels
		4.5.1 Cellulose nanocrystals-based aerogels
		4.5.2 Cellulose nanofibers-based aerogels
	4.6 Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 5 Nanocellulose: Chemistry, preparation, and applications in the food industry
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Chemistry of cellulose and nanocellulose
		5.2.1 Structure of cellulose
		5.2.2 Crystalline cellulose
		5.2.3 Nanocellulose
			5.2.3.1 History
			5.2.3.2 Isolation of nanocellulose
				Cellulose nanofibrils
				Cellulose nanocrystals
				Bacterial nanocellulose
	5.3 Applications
		5.3.1 Food industry application of nanocellulose
			5.3.1.1 As an emulsifying and stabilizing agent
			5.3.1.2 As a dietary fiber
			5.3.1.3 Packaging
		5.3.2 Safety of nanocellulose in food
	5.4 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 6 Nanocellulose nanocomposites in coating materials
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Surface modification of nanocellulose coating with silane
	6.3 Types of coating of modified nanocellulose
		6.3.1 Glass and aluminum as substrates
		6.3.2 Coating of modified nanocellulose on steel as substrates
	6.4 The properties of nanocellulose nanocomposite in coating materials
		6.4.1 Mechanical resistance properties
			6.4.1.1 Tensile strength
			6.4.1.2 Impact strength
			6.4.1.3 Abrasion resistance
		6.4.2 Air resistance of nanocellulose nanocomposite
		6.4.3 Water absorption properties of nanocellulose nanocomposite
		6.4.4 Corrosion of the composite coatings
		6.4.5 Crack resistance of nanocellulose nanocomposites
		6.4.6 Polarized optical microscopy
		6.4.7 Water uptake and permeability
	6.5 Applications of nanocellulose nanocomposite in coating materials
	6.6 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 7 Nanocellulose as an adsorbent for heavy metals
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Heavy metals as chemical contaminants
	7.3 Removal of heavy metals by adsorption
	7.4 Properties of nanocellulose as an adsorbent
	7.5 Adsorption of heavy metals with nanocellulose
	7.6 Challenges and future direction
	References
Chapter 8 Nanocellulose in sensors
	8.1 Introduction
		8.1.1 Sensor in industry
	8.2 Applications of nanocellulose in sensors
		8.2.1 Gas sensor
		8.2.2 Chemical sensor
			8.2.2.1 Overview of chemical sensor
			8.2.2.2 Type of chemical sensor
			8.2.2.3 Metal oxide, bimetal, bimetal oxide chemical sensor
			8.2.2.4 Nanocellulose chemical sensor
		8.2.3 Strain sensor
			8.2.3.1 Nanocellulose strain sensor
		8.2.4 Biosensor
			8.2.4.1 Optical biosensor
			8.2.4.2 Label-free optical biosensor
			8.2.4.3 Nanocellulose-based in label-free optical biosensor
			8.2.4.4 Label-driven optical biosensors
			8.2.4.5 Nanocellulose-based fluorescent biosensors
			8.2.4.6 Nanocellulose-based colorimetric biosensors
			8.2.4.7 Nanocellulose-based electrical biosensors
	8.3 Challenges derived from the use of nanocellulose in sensors
	8.4 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 9 An overview of cellulose nanofiber physicochemical characterizations and biological studies in relation to nanosa...
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Physicochemical properties of CNF suspension
	9.3 Potential applications of CNF in industry and consumer products
	9.4 Biological safety studies of CNF using a cellular test system
	9.5 Biological safety studies of CNF using a mammalian test system
	9.6 Biological testing of CNF suspension using an aquatic test system
	9.7 Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 10 Nanocellulose hydrogels
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Production and properties of nanocellulose hydrogels
		10.1 CNC hydrogels
		10.2 NFC hydrogels
	10.3 Hydrogels using nanocellulose as reinforcing agents
	10.4 Main potential applications of nanocellulose hydrogels
		10.1 Biomedicine
		10.2 Food
		10.3 Agriculture
		10.4 Cosmetics
	10.5 Final considerations
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 11 Nanocellulose applications in packaging materials
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Polymer-reinforced cellulose nanofiber composites
		11.2.1 Polyethylene
		11.2.2 Polypropylene
		11.2.3 Polystyrene
		11.2.4 Polyvinyl chloride
		11.2.5 Polytetrafluoroethylene
		11.2.6 Polylactic acid
		11.2.7 Poly(hydroxyalkanoates)
	11.3 Modifications to improve the properties of polymer-reinforced cellulose nanofiber composites
	11.4 Fabrication methods of polymer-reinforced cellulose nanofiber composites
		11.4.1 Extrusion
		11.4.2 Internal melt-blending
		11.4.3 Solvent casting
		11.4.4 Injection and compression molding
		11.4.5 One-pot extrusion
	11.5 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 12 Active biocomposite packaging films: Compatibility of carrageenan with cellulose nanofiber from empty fruit bunches
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Carrageenan
	12.3 Cellulose
	12.4 Compatibility between seaweed and cellulose
	12.5 Glycerol as a plasticizer
	12.6 Antioxidants in food packaging materials
	12.7 Alpha-tocopherol
	12.8 Biocomposite packaging film
	References
Chapter 13 Enhanced thermal stability of cellulose nanocrystals for processing polymer nanocomposites at a high temperature
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Process to enhance the thermal stability of CNC
	13.3 Thermally stable CNC-reinforced polymer nanocomposites
	References
Chapter 14 Nanocellulose nanocomposites for biomedical applications
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Biological properties of cellulose-based biomedical materials
	14.3 Advanced nanocellulose materials for biomedical applications
		14.3.1 Biological implants
		14.3.2 Drug delivery
		14.3.3 Tissue engineering
		14.3.4 Wound healing
			14.3.4.1 Bacterial nanocellulose (BNC)
			14.3.4.2 Plant-derived nanocellulose
			14.3.4.3 Animal-derived nanocellulose
		14.3.5 Antimicrobial applications
	14.4 Conclusions and future perspectives
	References
Chapter 15 Nanocellulose biocomposites in specialty papermaking
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Cellulose nanofiber (CNF)
		15.2.1 Biocomposites, structural and non-structural biocomposites
	15.3 Nanocellulose biocomposites in food packaging
		15.3.1 About food packaging
		15.3.2 Biodegradable polymers
		15.3.3 Cellulose in packaging and bionanocomposites
		15.3.4 Nanocellulose in bionanocomposite packaging
	15.4 Nanocellulose biocomposites in high-durability paper
		15.4.1 Advantages of nanocellulose application in high-durability paper
		15.4.2 Challenges of nanocellulose application in high-durability paper
		15.4.3 Incorporation of nanocellulose: Current situation
		15.4.4 Promising nanocellulose in high-durability paper production
	15.5 Nanocellulose biocomposites in printing paper
		15.5.1 Factors affecting paper strength
		15.5.2 Impact of cellulose nanofiber in printing paper
	15.6 The future of nanocellulose biocomposites in specialty papermaking
	References
Chapter 16 Nanocellulose composites in the pulp and paper industry
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Nanocellulose
	16.3 Methods of incorporation of nanocellulose into paper-based products
		16.3.1 Casting
			16.3.1.1 Aqueous casting solution
			16.3.1.2 Nonaqueous casting solution
		16.3.2 Coating process
		16.3.3 Filtration and papermaking processes
	16.4 Paper-based products incorporated with nanocellulose
		16.4.1 Paper sheet
		16.4.2 Packaging
		16.4.3 Nanofilm
	16.5 Properties of nanocellulose-incorporated paper-based products
	16.6 Challenges and future perspectives of nanocellulose in pulp and paper applications
	16.7 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 17 Nanocellulose nanocomposites in textiles
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Functionalization of nanocellulose in the textile industry
		17.2.1 Thermal insulation
		17.2.2 Antimicrobial properties
		17.2.3 Adsorption kinetics of dye
	17.3 Applications of nanocellulose in the textile industry
		17.3.1 Medical tools
		17.3.2 Military sector
	17.4 Challenges related to application of nanocellulose in the textile industry
	17.5 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 18 Nanocellulose as a bioadsorbent for water and wastewater purification
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Chemical contaminants
		18.2.1 Heavy metals
		18.2.2 Dyes
		18.2.3 Organic oils
		18.2.4 Other chemical contaminants
	18.3 Currently available bioadsorbents
		18.3.1 Adsorption process
			18.3.1.1 Activated carbon
			18.3.1.2 Clays
			18.3.1.3 Chitosan
			18.3.1.4 Nanomaterials
	18.4 Functionalization of nanocellulose
	18.5 Nanocellulose as a bioadsorbent
		18.5.1 Heavy metals
		18.5.2 Dyes
		18.5.3 Organics oil
	18.6 Future direction and recommendations
	18.7 Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 19 Nanocellulose composites in the automotive industry
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 The advantages of nanocellulose
	19.3 Nanocellulose composites for automotive applications
		19.3.1 Nanocellulose in thermoplastic composites for automotive
		19.3.2 Nanocellulose in thermosetting composites for automotive
	19.4 Performance of thermosetting polymers as a composite matrix
	19.5 Performance of nanocellulose-reinforced thermosetting polymer composites
	19.6 Future perspectives of nanocellulose
		19.6.1 Perspective on nanocellulose in metal composites for automotive
	19.7 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 20 Advances in nanocellulose nanocomposites for bone repair
	20.1 Introduction
		20.1.1 The unique properties of nanocellulose
	20.2 Tissue engineering
	20.3 Cellulose nanocomposites
		20.3.1 Fabrication techniques of cellulose nanocomposites
	20.4 Cellulose nanocomposites for bone repair and regeneration
	20.5 Concluding remarks
	References
Chapter 21 Nanocellulose composites for electronic applications
	21.1 Introduction
	21.2 Types of nanocellulose
		21.2.1 Nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC)
		21.2.2 Nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC)
		21.2.3 Bacterial nanocellulose (BNC)
	21.3 Mechanical properties of nanocellulose polymer composites
	21.4 Thermal properties of nanocellulose composites
	21.5 Electrical properties of nanocellulose composites
	21.6 Conductive nanocellulose composites
	21.7 Nanocellulose in sensors
	21.8 Nanocellulose in piezoelectric and electroactive effects
	21.9 Nanocellulose in electronic components
		21.9.1 Supercapacitors (SC)
		21.9.2 Thin film transistors (TFTs)
		21.9.3 Organic field-effect transistors (OFETs)
		21.9.4 Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs)
	21.10 Nanocellulose as a separator in lithium-ion batteries
	21.11 Summary
	Acknowledgments
	References
Index
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