In Vivo Optical Imaging of Brain Function (Frontiers in Neuroscience)

1420076841.jpg......Page 1
76841_c000.pdf......Page 2
IN VIVO OPTICAL IMAGING of BRAIN FUNCTION, SECOND EDITION......Page 6
Contents......Page 8
Preface......Page 10
The Editor......Page 11
Contributors List......Page 12
CONTENTS......Page 15
Table of Contents......Page 0
1.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 16
1.2.1 GENETICALLY ENGINEERED FP CALCIUM SENSORS......Page 17
1.2.2 REPORTERS OF TRANSMITTER RELEASE: PHLUORINS......Page 19
1.2.3 GENETICALLY ENGINEERED FP VOLTAGE SENSORS......Page 21
1.3.1 VIRUS VECTORS......Page 23
1.3.4 CHEMICALLY INDUCIBLE SYSTEMS FOR TEMPORAL CONTROL OF REPORTER EXPRESSION......Page 24
1.4.1 OPTICAL SETUP......Page 25
1.4.2 PHYSICAL SETUP FOR IN VIVO IMAGING......Page 27
1.4.3 REPEATED, CHRONIC IN VIVO IMAGING......Page 28
1.4.4 IMAGING IN AWAKE, HEAD-FIXED ANIMALS......Page 29
1.5.1 PHOTOBLEACHING......Page 30
1.5.2 HEMODYNAMIC ARTIFACTS......Page 31
1.5.3 GREEN AUTOFLUORESCENCE SIGNALS......Page 33
1.5.5 ESTIMATING ACTION POTENTIAL FIRING FROM OPTICAL SIGNALS......Page 35
1.6.1 SPH IMAGING OF ODORANT-EVOKED ACTIVITY AND PRESYNAPTIC MODULATION OF TRANSMITTER RELEASE......Page 36
1.6.1.1 SpH as a Reporter of Transmitter Release......Page 37
1.6.1.2 Using SpH to Probe the Organization of Presynaptic Inhibition In Vivo......Page 41
1.6.2 IMAGING POSTSYNAPTIC ODOR REPRESENTATIONS WITH GCAMP2......Page 43
1.7 DISCUSSION AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS......Page 45
REFERENCES......Page 46
2.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 50
2.2.1 TWO-PHOTON MICROSCOPY......Page 51
2.2.2 MONITORING CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION......Page 53
2.3.2 LASER-SCANNING MODES FOR MEASUREMENTS ON VARIOUS TIMESCALES......Page 55
2.3.3 TRADITIONAL DYES AND FLUORESCENT PROTEINS......Page 57
2.3.4 ACTIVITY-DEPENDENT PROBES......Page 58
2.4.1 CALCIUM INDICATOR TYPES AND LOADING METHODS......Page 59
2.4.2 INFERRING NEURONAL SPIKING ACTIVITY FROM CALCIUM SIGNALS......Page 61
2.5.1 IMAGING INDIVIDUAL CELLS......Page 63
2.5.2 IMAGING POPULATION ACTIVITY......Page 64
2.6 DISCUSSION......Page 66
REFERENCES......Page 68
CONTENTS......Page 72
3.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 74
3.2.1.1 Direct Imaging......Page 75
3.2.1.2 Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy......Page 76
3.2.2 TWO-PHOTON LASER SCANNING MICROSCOPY FOR STRONGLY SCATTERING PREPARATIONS......Page 77
3.3.1 FOCAL VOLUMES......Page 79
3.3.1.2 Ablation......Page 80
3.3.3 PHOTOBLEACHING AND PHOTODAMAGE BY TWO-PHOTON EXCITATION......Page 82
3.3.4 LIGHT SOURCE......Page 83
3.3.5.1 Laser Beam Profile......Page 85
3.3.5.2 Reshaping the Laser Beam......Page 86
3.3.6 DESIGN OF A SCAN SYSTEM......Page 88
3.3.6.1 Constraints on Axial Distances and Optical Apertures......Page 91
3.3.6.2 Two-Dimensional Scanning......Page 93
3.3.7 FLUORESCENT LIGHT DETECTION......Page 94
3.3.7.1 Placement of Detector Assembly......Page 95
3.3.7.2 Constraints for Detection Elements......Page 96
3.3.7.3 Emitted Photon Yield per Laser Pulse......Page 98
3.4.1 OPTICAL AND MECHANICAL......Page 99
3.4.3 PATH FROM LASERS TO MICROSCOPE......Page 101
3.4.4 PATH ALONG MICROSCOPE: TWO-PHOTON EXCITATION......Page 103
3.4.5 PATH ALONG MICROSCOPE: PLASMA-MEDIATED ABLATION......Page 105
3.4.6.1 Detector Assembly......Page 106
3.4.6.2 Collection Filters and Optics......Page 108
3.4.6.3 Photodetectors......Page 109
3.4.6.4 Detection Electronics......Page 110
3.4.7 SCAN AND ACQUISITION ELECTRONICS......Page 111
3.4.8 SOFTWARE......Page 112
3.5.1.3 Ablation Threshold......Page 113
3.5.1.4 Spatial Uniformity......Page 114
3.5.2.1 Autocorrelation......Page 115
3.5.3 ALIGNMENT OF THE IMAGING AND ABLATION FOCI......Page 117
3.5.4.1 In Vivo Cortical Blood Flow......Page 119
3.5.4.2 Perturbation of Vasculature and Neuronal Processes......Page 120
SCANNERS......Page 122
LASER AND ANCILLARY EQUIPMENT......Page 123
APPENDIX B: BASICS OF INTERFEROMETRIC AUTOCORRELATION......Page 124
REFERENCES......Page 125
CONTENTS......Page 129
4.1.1 AN OVERVIEW OF SOFTWARE FOR TWO-PHOTON LASER SCANNING MICROSCOPY......Page 130
4.1.4 MPSCOPE 1.0: TECHNICAL CHOICES......Page 131
4.1.4.1 Hardware Principles......Page 132
4.1.4.2 Extensive Multithreading......Page 134
4.1.4.3 Object-Oriented, Native-Compiled Code......Page 135
4.1.4.4 Componentization......Page 139
4.1.4.5 ActiveX Scripting......Page 140
4.2.1 GENERAL FEATURES......Page 142
4.2.3 MOTION CONTROL SUPPORT......Page 143
4.2.4 ANALOG INTEGRATION......Page 146
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 149
APPENDIX......Page 150
REFERENCES......Page 153
CONTENTS......Page 155
5.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 156
5.2 MECHANISMS OF OPTICAL RESPONSES......Page 158
5.2.3 CELLULAR SWELLING......Page 159
5.2.4 TEMPORAL RESOLUTION OF LIGHT-SCATTERING CHANGES......Page 160
5.2.6 PERIPHERAL VERSUS DIRECT ILLUMINATION......Page 161
5.3.1 IMAGER DESIGN......Page 162
5.3.2 DIGITIZING HARDWARE......Page 163
5.3.3 RETINAL IMAGING......Page 164
5.3.3.1 Preparation of Isolated Retinas......Page 165
5.3.3.2 NIR Light Microscopy......Page 166
5.3.3.3 NIR Light OCT......Page 167
5.4.2 BRAINSTEM AND CORTICAL RECORDING FROM THE RAT......Page 168
5.5 FAST-SCATTERED LIGHT CHANGES IN ISOLATED NERVES......Page 170
5.5.1 TEASING APART POLARIZATION AND SWELLING EFFECTS......Page 172
5.5.2 FAST CCD OPTICAL IMAGING OF RETINAL NEURAL ACTIVITY......Page 173
5.5.3 FAST OCT RECORDING OF RETINAL ACTIVATION......Page 176
5.6 SUMMARY......Page 177
REFERENCES......Page 178
CONTENTS......Page 183
6.2.1 OPTICAL MEASUREMENT OF MEMBRANE POTENTIAL......Page 184
6.2.2 VOLTAGE-SENSITIVE PROBES FOR IN VIVO APPLICATIONS......Page 185
6.3.1 SURGERY AND CORTICAL STAINING WITH RH1691......Page 186
6.3.3 DATA ANALYSIS......Page 187
6.4.1 ORIGINS OF RECORDED OPTICAL SIGNALS......Page 189
6.4.2 RH1691 REPORTS SUPRAGRANULAR MEMBRANE POTENTIAL CHANGES IN ANESTHETIZED MICE......Page 190
6.5.1 EXPERIMENTAL STRATEGIES......Page 193
6.5.2 STATE-DEPENDENT SENSORY PROCESSING......Page 195
6.6 DISCUSSION......Page 197
6.7.1 NEW DYES AND NONLINEAR OPTICS......Page 198
6.7.3 FIBER OPTIC VSD IMAGING......Page 199
REFERENCES......Page 200
CONTENTS......Page 205
7.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 206
7.2 THE PRINCIPLE UNDERLYING FLAVOPROTEIN FLUORESCENCE IMAGING......Page 207
7.3.1 SURGICAL PROCEDURES REQUIRED FOR IMAGING EXPERIMENTS IN ANESTHETIZED ANIMALS......Page 209
7.3.3 ANALYTICAL METHODS......Page 210
7.4.1 EXPERIENCE-DEPENDENT PLASTICITY IN THE AUDITORY CORTEX......Page 211
7.4.2 EXPERIENCE-DEPENDENT PLASTICITY IN THE VISUAL CORTEX......Page 214
7.4.3 EXPERIENCE-DEPENDENT PLASTICITY IN THE SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX......Page 218
7.5.1 MERITS OF TRANSCRANIAL FLAVOPROTEIN FLUORESCENCE IMAGING......Page 220
7.5.2 DEMERITS OF TRANSCRANIAL FLAVOPROTEIN FLUORESCENCE IMAGING......Page 221
7.6.1 TRANSCRANIAL CONTROL OF NEURAL ACTIVITIES......Page 222
7.6.2 TRANSCRANIAL IMAGING USING TWO-PHOTON MICROSCOPY......Page 224
REFERENCES......Page 225
CONTENTS......Page 233
8.2.1 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NEURAL ACTIVITY AND NEURONAL METABOLISM......Page 234
8.2.2.1 Review of Brain Metabolism and Glucose Utilization......Page 236
8.2.2.2 Localization of the Signal in Cells and Tissue......Page 254
8.2.3 IMAGING OPPORTUNITIES FROM NEURONAL METABOLISM......Page 257
8.3.1 EQUIPMENT AND METHODOLOGY......Page 260
8.3.2.1 Signal Strength......Page 261
8.3.2.2 Spatial Resolution......Page 262
8.3.2.3 Time Course and Temporal Resolution......Page 264
8.3.2.4 Vascular Artifacts......Page 265
8.3.2.6 Analysis Techniques......Page 266
8.3.2.7 Possible Pitfalls......Page 267
8.4.2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF FA IMAGING IN VIVO......Page 269
8.4.3 FUNCTIONAL IMAGING IN VITRO......Page 272
8.5 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS......Page 274
REFERENCES......Page 275
9.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 282
9.2.1 ADVANTAGES OF APPLYING ISOI TO THE RAT PRIMARY SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX......Page 284
9.2.2 INTRINSIC SIGNALS AND THEIR SOURCES......Page 285
9.2.3 STIMULUS-EVOKED INTRINSIC SIGNALS......Page 286
9.2.4 BIOLOGICAL NOISE......Page 291
9.2.5 THE IMAGING CAMERA......Page 295
9.2.6 IMAGING PLASTICITY IN SENSORY CORTEX......Page 297
9.3.1 ANESTHESIA......Page 298
9.3.3 IMAGING SET-UP......Page 299
9.3.4 DATA COLLECTION......Page 300
9.3.5 DATA ANALYSIS AND QUANTIFICATION......Page 301
9.3.6 ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR DATA ANALYSIS AND QUANTIFICATION......Page 303
9.4 SUCCESSFUL APPLICATION OF ISOI FOR STUDYING ADULT PLASTICITY OF FUNCTIONAL REPRESENTATIONS......Page 306
9.5 FUTURE DIRECTIONS......Page 310
REFERENCES......Page 311
10.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 313
10.1.1 NEOCORTEX AND CORTICAL MAPS......Page 314
10.1.2 CONVENTIONAL METHOD FOR BRAIN MAPPING......Page 316
10.2.2 THE BASICS OF THE FOURIER APPROACH......Page 318
10.2.3 STIMULUS DESIGN......Page 319
10.2.3.2 Stimulus for Orientation and Direction Preference......Page 320
10.2.4 DATA ACQUISITION AND IMAGING SYSTEM......Page 321
10.2.5 ANALYSIS AND VISUALIZATION......Page 322
10.3.1 SURGICAL PREPARATION......Page 323
10.3.4 DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS......Page 324
10.4.1 RELATIVE RETINOTOPY......Page 325
10.4.2 HEMODYNAMIC DELAY......Page 327
10.4.3 ABSOLUTE RETINOTOPY......Page 328
10.4.4 ORIENTATION AND DIRECTION PREFERENCE......Page 329
10.4.5 VALIDATION OF ORIENTATION MAPS......Page 331
10.4.6 STABILITY AND VARIATION OF ORIENTATION AND DIRECTION MAPS......Page 332
10.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 335
REFERENCES......Page 336
11.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 338
11.2 THEORY OF NEUTRAL RED IMAGING......Page 339
11.3.1 ANIMAL PREPARATION......Page 340
11.3.3 ELECTRICAL STIMULATIONS, ELECTROPHYSIOLOGICAL RECORDING, AND PHARMACOLOGY......Page 341
11.3.5 DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS......Page 342
11.4 NATURE AND ORIGIN OF THE NEUTRAL RED FLUORESCENCE SIGNAL......Page 343
11.5 PROPERTIES OF NEUTRAL RED IMAGING REVEALED BY PARALLEL FIBER STIMULATION......Page 346
11.6.1 PARASAGITTAL ORGANIZATION OF THE CEREBELLAR CORTEX......Page 350
11.6.2 OPTICAL IMAGING OF PLASTICITY AT THE PARALLEL FIBER-PURKINJE CELL SYNAPSE......Page 352
11.6.3 SPREADING ACIDIFICATION AND DEPRESSION......Page 353
11.7 DISCUSSION AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS......Page 355
REFERENCES......Page 357
CONTENTS......Page 363
12.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 364
12.2.1 MODULATED IMAGING SPECTROSCOPY......Page 365
12.2.4 SPECTRAL ANALYSIS–CHROMOPHORE CALCULATION......Page 367
12.2.6.2 MI Measurement Protocol......Page 368
12.2.6.3 Spatial Frequency Sensitivity Analysis......Page 369
12.3.1 BASELINE MI SPECTROSCOPY......Page 370
12.3.2 DYNAMIC MI SPECTROSCOPY OF CSD......Page 373
12.3.3 DYNAMIC MI SPECTROSCOPY OF STROKE......Page 381
12.4 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS......Page 382
REFERENCES......Page 383
CONTENTS......Page 386
13.1.1 HISTORY OF THE TECHNIQUE......Page 387
13.2.2 CYTOCHROMES......Page 388
13.2.4 INTRINSIC FLUORESCENCE......Page 390
13.3.2 MICROSCOPE AND LIGHT SOURCE......Page 391
13.3.4 LONI INTRAOPERATIVE OIS SYSTEM......Page 392
13.3.5 LONI EXPERIMENTAL PARADIGMS......Page 393
13.3.6 NOISE REDUCTION......Page 394
13.3.7 REGISTRATION WITH OTHER MODALITIES: FMRI......Page 395
13.4.1 THE TIME COURSE OF OPTICAL SIGNALS IN HUMANS......Page 397
13.4.2 CORRELATION WITH ELECTROPHYSIOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES......Page 399
13.4.3 OIS OF SENSORIMOTOR CORTEX......Page 400
13.4.4 INTRAOPERATIVE MAPS OF LANGUAGE......Page 401
13.4.5 IMAGING OF CORTICAL PATHOLOGY......Page 402
13.4.6 COMPARISON WITH BOLD FMRI......Page 403
13.5.1 2D OPTICAL SPECTROSCOPY......Page 407
13.6.1 INTRAOPERATIVE OPTICAL IMAGING......Page 408
13.6.3 RESEARCH UTILITY......Page 409
REFERENCES......Page 411
CONTENTS......Page 416
14.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 417
14.2 THEORY OF OPTICAL IMAGING......Page 418
14.2.1 PHOTON DIFFUSION IN TISSUE......Page 421
14.2.2 THEORETICAL OPTICAL SENSITIVITY TO THE BRAIN......Page 423
14.2.3 DIFFUSE OPTICAL IMAGING AND TOMOGRAPHY......Page 424
14.3 INSTRUMENTATION FOR BRAIN STUDIES......Page 428
14.3.1 NIRS INSTRUMENT......Page 429
14.3.2 IMAGING INSTRUMENTATION......Page 431
14.4 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN OF OPTICAL STUDIES......Page 432
14.4.1 DESIGN EXAMPLE 1: NIRS BASELINE RECORDING......Page 435
14.4.2 DESIGN EXAMPLE 2: FUNCTIONAL NIRS......Page 436
14.5.1 METHODS FOR THE REDUCTION OF MOTION......Page 437
14.6.1 LINEAR FILTERING TECHNIQUES......Page 440
14.6.2 PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS......Page 441
14.6.4 LINEAR MODEL OF HEMODYNAMIC CHANGE......Page 442
14.6.5 HOMER—A GRAPHICAL INTERFACE FOR FUNCTIONAL OPTICAL SIGNALS......Page 444
14.7 MULTIMODAL AND VALIDATION STUDIES......Page 445
14.8 SUMMARY......Page 448
REFERENCES......Page 449
CONTENTS......Page 457
15.1.2 WHY NON-INVASIVE FUNCTIONAL BRAIN IMAGING?......Page 458
15.1.3.1 Hemodynamic/Metabolic Methods......Page 459
15.2.1 THE SCATTERING SIGNAL......Page 460
15.2.2.1 Continuous vs. Time-Resolved Measures......Page 461
15.2.2.2 Penetration and 3D Reconstruction......Page 462
15.2.2.3 Data Collection and Artifact Correction......Page 464
15.2.2.4 Signal Processing and Statistical Analysis......Page 465
15.3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS......Page 467
15.3.1 VISUAL MODALITY......Page 469
15.3.2 AUDITORY MODALITY......Page 471
15.3.4 MOTOR MODALITY......Page 472
15.3.5 COGNITIVE STUDIES......Page 473
Example 1: Application of EROS to the Study of Sentence Comprehension (Tse et al.)......Page 474
Example 2: Application of EROS to the Analysis of Frontal Activity in an Oddball Task (Low et al.)......Page 475
15.4.3 UNRESOLVED ISSUES AND FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS......Page 477
REFERENCES......Page 478