In Situ Bioremediation of Perchlorate in Groundwater

Table of Contents......Page 29
Preface......Page 6
About The Editors......Page 10
About The Authors......Page 11
External Reviewers......Page 17
Acronyms and Abbreviations......Page 18
Unit Conversion Table......Page 21
Glossary......Page 22
1.1 Introduction......Page 40
1.2.1 Perchlorate Properties and Behavior in the Subsurface......Page 41
1.2.2 Production and Disposal......Page 42
1.2.3 Regulatory History......Page 43
1.2.4 Evolution of Analytical Capabilities......Page 44
1.2.5 Evolution of Toxicological Understanding......Page 45
1.3.1 Treatment Technology Overview......Page 46
1.3.2 Why Use In Situ Bioremediation?......Page 48
2.2 Early Discoveries......Page 53
2.3 Analytical Methods and Pilot Programs......Page 54
2.4 Ubiquitous Occurrence of Perchlorate Degraders......Page 55
2.5 Field Demonstrations......Page 56
2.6 Bioremediation Strategies......Page 57
2.7 Remediation of Perchlorate in Soil—The New Challenge......Page 59
2.8 The Challenges Ahead......Page 62
3.2.1 Ion Exchange......Page 90
3.2.2 Abiotic Reduction Technologies......Page 93
3.3 Biological Remediation Processes......Page 95
3.3.1 General Characteristics of DPRB......Page 96
3.3.3 Environmental Factors Controlling DPRB Activity......Page 97
3.3.4 Summary......Page 99
3.4.1 Biofouling and Electron Donor Selection......Page 100
3.5 The Tools Available for Predicting and Monitoring Microbial Perchlorate Reduction......Page 103
3.5.1 Most Probable Number Counts......Page 104
3.5.3 Biomarkers for all DPRB......Page 105
3.5.5 Use of Stable Isotopes to Identify Perchlorate Source and Monitor Degradation......Page 106
3.6.1 Direct Isolation......Page 107
3.7 Conclusions......Page 108
Appendix 3.1 Medium for Freshwater Perchlorate-Reducing Microorganisms......Page 114
4.2 Sources of Perchlorate......Page 66
4.2.1 Anthropogenic Sources......Page 67
4.2.2 Natural Sources of Perchlorate......Page 71
4.3.1 Stable Isotope Analysis......Page 73
4.3.2 Stable Isotope Methods for Perchlorate......Page 74
4.4.1 DoD-Approved Analytical Methods......Page 79
4.4.2 Other Analytical Methods for Perchlorate......Page 81
4.5 Site Characterization For Perchlorate Treatment......Page 84
4.6 Summary......Page 85
5.1 Introduction......Page 115
5.2.1 In Situ Bioremediation......Page 117
5.2.2 Active Treatment......Page 118
5.2.3 Semi-Passive Treatment......Page 120
5.3 Decision Guidelines......Page 121
5.3.1 Ability to Meet Management Objectives......Page 122
5.4 Summary......Page 124
6.1 Background and General Approach......Page 127
6.2 When to Consider an Active Treatment System......Page 128
6.3.1 Groundwater Extraction and Reinjection (ER)......Page 129
6.3.2 Horizontal Flow Treatment Wells (HFTWs)......Page 130
6.4.1 Biobarriers......Page 131
6.4.2 Source Area Treatment......Page 134
6.5.1 Site Assessment Needs......Page 136
6.5.2 Modeling......Page 137
6.5.3 Electron Donor......Page 141
6.5.4 Performance Monitoring......Page 144
6.5.5 Operational Issues......Page 147
6.6.1 Site Description......Page 149
6.6.2 Site Geology and Hydrogeology......Page 151
6.6.3 Pilot Test Design......Page 153
6.6.4 PTA Installation, Instrumentation and Operation......Page 154
6.6.5 Baseline Geochemical Characterization......Page 155
6.6.6 Hydraulic Characterization (Tracer Testing)......Page 157
6.6.7 System Operation......Page 159
6.6.8 Demonstration Results......Page 160
6.6.9 Pilot Test Conclusions......Page 166
6.7 Summary......Page 167
7.1.1 What is a Semi-Passive Approach......Page 170
7.1.3 Advantages and Limitations Relative to Other Approaches......Page 172
7.1.4 Technology Maturity......Page 173
7.2.1 Typical System Design......Page 174
7.2.2 Site Assessment Needs......Page 176
7.2.4 Tracer Testing......Page 177
7.2.6 Monitoring......Page 178
7.3.1 Demonstration Test Procedures......Page 179
7.3.2 Demonstration Test Results......Page 182
7.3.3 Conclusions of Case Study......Page 187
7.4 Summary......Page 188
8.1 Introduction......Page 190
8.2.1 Treatment System Configurations......Page 191
8.2.2 Planning and Design of Passive Bioremediation Systems......Page 193
8.2.3 Site Characterization Requirements......Page 198
8.2.4 Monitoring......Page 200
8.3 Case Study......Page 201
8.3.1 Demonstration Design......Page 202
8.3.3 Results......Page 204
8.5 Factors Controlling Cost and Performance......Page 206
8.6 Summary......Page 207
9.1.1 Applications to Date......Page 211
9.1.2 Technology Description......Page 212
9.2.1 Land Use and Infrastructure......Page 213
9.2.2 Contaminant Concentration and Distribution......Page 214
9.3 Design Of Permeable Biowalls......Page 215
9.3.2 Dimensions, Configuration and Residence Time......Page 216
9.3.4 Recharge Options and Alternative Configurations......Page 217
9.3.5 Regulatory Compliance......Page 218
9.4.1 Construction Methods......Page 219
9.4.3 Waste Management Plan......Page 220
9.5.1 Biogeochemistry......Page 221
9.5.3 Sustaining the Reaction Zone......Page 222
9.6.2 Operations and Monitoring Costs......Page 223
9.6.3 Summary of Life Cycle Costs......Page 224
9.7.1 Fast Track Cleanup and Innovative Technology Implementation......Page 225
9.7.3 In Situ Groundwater Treatment......Page 226
9.7.5 Ex Situ Soil Treatment......Page 229
9.7.6 Operations and Maintenance......Page 230
9.8 Summary......Page 231
10.1 Background......Page 233
10.2 Costing Methodology......Page 234
10.3 Template Site Characteristics and Variations Considered......Page 236
10.4 Cost Estimates for Base Case Site Characteristics......Page 240
10.5.2 Cases 3 and 4: Reduced and Elevated Concentrations of Perchlorate......Page 245
10.5.3 Cases 5 and 6: Lower and Higher Electron Acceptor Concentrations......Page 247
10.5.5 Case 9: Deep Groundwater......Page 248
10.6 Summary......Page 249
11.2.1 Basis......Page 253
11.2.3 Case Studies......Page 256
11.3.1 Basis......Page 258
11.3.2 Status......Page 261
11.3.4 Case Studies......Page 262
11.4 Vadose Zone Bioremediation......Page 263
11.4.1 Basis......Page 265
11.4.2 Status......Page 267
11.4.4 Case Studies......Page 268
F......Page 278
N......Page 279
S......Page 280
V......Page 281