Improving the Safety of Fresh Fruit and Vegetables (Woodhead Publishing in Food Science and Technology)

Improving the safety of fresh fruit and vegetables......Page 1
Contents......Page 3
Contributor contact details......Page 10
1.1 Introduction......Page 14
Table of Contents......Page 0
1.2 Human pathogens associated with vegetables......Page 15
1.3.1 Pathogenic Escherichia coli......Page 19
1.3.2 Shigella......Page 20
1.3.3 Salmonella......Page 21
1.3.5 Listeria monocytogenes......Page 22
1.3.8 Enteric viruses......Page 23
1.4.1 Transmission of human pathogens in manure, water and soil......Page 24
Manure......Page 25
Irrigation water......Page 26
Soil......Page 28
1.4.2 Pre- and post-harvest handling......Page 29
1.5 Interaction of human pathogens with growing vegetables......Page 30
1.5.1 Persistence of human pathogens on the phyllosphere of plants......Page 31
1.5.3 Internalization of human pathogens into growing plants......Page 32
Establishment of endophytic populations......Page 33
Human pathogens as endophytes......Page 35
1.5.4 Internalization of human pathogens in different plant types......Page 36
Lettuce......Page 37
Spinach......Page 38
Cabbage......Page 39
Root crops......Page 40
1.5.5 Internalization of enteric viruses into growing plants......Page 41
1.6 Implications for control......Page 42
1.7 Future trends......Page 43
1.9 References......Page 44
2.1 Introduction......Page 55
2.1.3 Listeria monocytogenes......Page 57
2.2 Pathogens in particular types of fruit......Page 60
2.2.2 Berries......Page 61
2.2.3 Melons......Page 65
2.3 Mechanisms of surface contamination......Page 71
2.3.1 Handling practices on the farms......Page 77
2.3.2 Conditions during processing and packaging......Page 78
2.4.1 pH, water activity, nutrients and biological structure of fruit......Page 79
2.5.1 Significance of source of contamination in raw and processed fruit......Page 81
2.5.2 Food safety initiatives at the farm and processing level......Page 82
2.5.3 Intervention methods to ensure microbiological safety of fruit......Page 83
Low dosage irradiation......Page 84
Biocontrol......Page 85
2.6.1 Sources of contamination......Page 87
2.6.3 Development of efficiency methods to eliminate human pathogens from fresh fruit......Page 88
2.6.4 Indicators for monitoring of pathogens......Page 89
2.6.5 Influence of packaging technologies, especially advances in MAP......Page 90
2.7.1 The USA......Page 91
2.7.2 The European Community......Page 94
2.8 References......Page 95
3.1 Introduction......Page 100
3.2 Foodborne pathogens and post-harvest microbiological spoilage of fresh fruit and vegetables......Page 102
3.3.1 Sample processing......Page 105
3.3.2 Cultivation-dependent and cultivation-independent methods......Page 106
3.3.3 Nucleic acids-based methods......Page 110
Preparation of the sample......Page 116
Viability issue......Page 117
Compatibility of molecular and ISO methods......Page 119
Optimisation of molecular methods: parameters to consider prior to implementation......Page 120
3.4 Traceability and subtyping of foodborne pathogens......Page 122
3.5 References......Page 130
4.1 Introduction......Page 146
4.2 Pesticide use......Page 147
4.3.1 US regulation......Page 148
FDA regulatory monitoring program......Page 152
4.4.2 USDA pesticide data program......Page 154
4.4.3 California department of pesticide regulation residue monitoring program......Page 161
4.5 Risk assessment......Page 162
4.6 Future trends......Page 164
4.8 References......Page 165
5.1 Introduction......Page 167
5.2 Detecting pesticides: physicochemical methods......Page 170
5.3.1 Antibody methods......Page 172
5.3.2 Enzyme methods......Page 173
5.4 The principles of biosensors......Page 174
5.4.1 Optical biosensors......Page 178
5.4.2 Electrochemical biosensors......Page 179
5.5 Developing low-cost biosensors......Page 181
5.6 Using biosensors: pesticide residues in grain, fruit and vegetables......Page 183
5.8 Sources of further information and advice......Page 185
5.9.2 Selected scientific papers......Page 186
6.1 Introduction......Page 188
6.2.1 Non-integrated supply chains......Page 189
6.2.2 Integrated supply chains......Page 190
6.2.3 Future trends in supply chain management......Page 192
6.2.4 Challenges to management in the supply chain......Page 194
6.3.1 Risks for fresh and minimally processed fruit and vegetables......Page 197
Minimal processing of vegetables......Page 200
6.3.2 Risk analysis and the house of food safety......Page 201
6.3.3 Misinterpretation of risk-related issues......Page 204
6.4.1 General principles and requirements of European legislation......Page 205
Traceability and labelling......Page 206
6.4.2 European regulation EC 852/2004 on food hygiene......Page 207
6.4.3 Critical points in the production of fresh and minimally processed fruit and vegetables......Page 218
6.5 Future trends......Page 229
6.6 Sources of further information and advice......Page 233
6.7 References......Page 234
7.1 Introduction......Page 238
7.2 Perspectives on food quality and safety......Page 239
7.3 Food safety and the grower......Page 244
7.4 Good agricultural practice......Page 247
7.4.1 The structure and scope of GAP......Page 250
7.5 The hazard analysis critical control point system......Page 252
7.5.1 Categorising hazards......Page 253
7.5.2 Applying the HACCP concept......Page 255
Stage 1: Assemble the HACCP team (and define the scope and terms of reference of the study)......Page 256
Stage 2: Describe the product......Page 257
Stage 3: Identify the intended use of the product......Page 258
Stage 4: Construct a flow diagram......Page 259
Stage 5: Confirm the flow diagram......Page 260
Stage 6: Hazard analysis......Page 261
Stage 7: Identify critical control points (CCPs)......Page 262
Stage 9: Establish monitoring systems......Page 264
Stage 11: Validate the HACCP plan and implement and verify the HACCP system......Page 265
Stage 12: Establish and maintain documentation......Page 267
7.5.4 Implementing, maintaining and improving HACCP systems......Page 268
7.6 HACCP and GAP development......Page 272
7.8 Sources of information (worldwide) and training (in the UK)......Page 274
7.9 References......Page 275
8.1 Introduction......Page 277
8.2 Systems controlling foodborne illnesses......Page 279
8.2.1 HACCP-based programs......Page 280
8.3 Existing guidelines and OFFS programs for fresh fruit and vegetables......Page 282
8.4 Adoption of OFFS-grower perceptions, practical solutions, experiences from the field......Page 283
8.5 Examples from Food Safety Network on-farm food safety research......Page 284
8.7 References......Page 286
Appendix 1: A summary of on-farm food safety programs or guidelines for fresh fruit and vegetables worldwide......Page 288
9.1 Introduction......Page 302
Tactics that prevent, reduce or delay pest colonization of the crop......Page 303
Tactics that reduce survival of pests by creating adverse biotic and abiotic conditions......Page 307
Tactics that reduce injury caused by pests to crop plants......Page 308
9.2.3 Biological control......Page 309
Inoculation biological control......Page 313
Transgenic biocontrol agents......Page 314
9.2.4 Semiochemicals......Page 315
9.3.1 Levels of integration......Page 317
9.3.2 Apple......Page 319
9.3.3 Greenhouse vegetables......Page 321
9.4.1 Biocontrol concerns......Page 322
9.4.2 Concerns related to genetically modified crops and biocontrol agents......Page 325
9.5 Future developments......Page 327
9.6 Sources of further information and advice......Page 328
9.8 References......Page 329
10.1 Introduction......Page 340
10.3 Standards and regulations......Page 341
10.4.1 Bacteriological risks......Page 342
10.5 What is known about the safety of organic vegetables?......Page 344
10.5.2 Fungi and mycotoxin surveys......Page 345
10.6 Managing bacteriological risks......Page 346
10.7 Managing risks from mycotoxins......Page 349
10.9 Sources of further information and advice......Page 350
10.10 References......Page 351
11.1.1 Inadequate control/optimisation of chlorinated systems......Page 358
11.1.3 Formation of harmful by-products from hypochlorite......Page 360
11.1.4 Future use of hypochlorite in fresh produce washing......Page 362
11.2 Standardised approach to biocide testing......Page 363
11.2.2 Time of washing treatment/level of hypochlorite used......Page 364
11.3.1 Chlorine dioxide......Page 365
11.3.3 Hydrogen peroxide......Page 366
11.3.5 Trisodium phosphate......Page 367
11.3.8 Hot water......Page 368
11.3.11 Photodynamic inactivation......Page 369
11.3.14 Biocontrol......Page 370
11.4 Strengths and weaknesses of alternative treatments......Page 371
11.4.1 Ultrasound......Page 372
11.4.2 Hydrogen peroxide......Page 374
11.5 Future trends......Page 375
11.7 References......Page 376
12.1 Introduction......Page 380
12.2 Decontamination of fruit and vegetables......Page 381
12.3 Ozone as a sanitizer......Page 382
12.3.2 Generation of ozone......Page 383
12.3.3 Mechanism of ozone disinfection......Page 384
12.3.4 Use of ozone as a disinfectant for fruit and vegetables......Page 385
12.4 Combination of ozone with other decontamination techniques......Page 387
12.5.2 Deterioration of food quality......Page 388
12.6 Future prospects for ozone use in the food industry......Page 389
12.9 References......Page 390
13.1 Introduction......Page 394
13.1.1 Action of ionizing radiation......Page 395
13.1.2 Sources of ionizing radiation......Page 396
13.1.3 Doses used in radiation processing......Page 398
13.2.1 Control of insects (disinfestation)......Page 399
13.2.3 Prolonging shelf-life......Page 400
13.2.4 Improvement of product quality......Page 401
13.3 Advantages and limitations of food irradiation......Page 402
13.4 Effects of irradiation on fruits and vegetables......Page 403
Changes in proteins......Page 404
Changes in lipids......Page 405
Changes in vitamins......Page 406
13.5.1 Electron spin resonance spectroscopy......Page 407
13.5.2 Thermoluminescence method......Page 409
13.5.4 Chemical and biological methods......Page 410
13.6 Some specific applications of irradiation in fruits and vegetables......Page 411
Temperate fruits......Page 412
Tropical fruits......Page 413
Subtropical fruits......Page 414
Tomatoes......Page 415
Potatoes......Page 416
Onions and garlic......Page 418
Mushrooms......Page 420
13.7 Future of irradiation in fruits and vegetables......Page 421
13.8 Further reading......Page 422
13.9 References......Page 423
14.1 Introduction......Page 436
14.2.1 Hot water......Page 437
14.2.2 Vapour heat (water-saturated hot air)......Page 439
14.2.3 Hot dry air......Page 440
14.2.4 Far infrared radiation heating (FIR)......Page 441
14.2.5 Radio frequency (RF) heating or microwave (MW) heating......Page 442
14.3.1 Influence on pests and microorganisms and modelling thermal inactivation......Page 443
14.3.2 Influence on host quality......Page 446
14.4 Heat transfer kinetics......Page 449
14.5 Practical applications and costs......Page 451
14.6 Future trends......Page 453
14.7 Sources of further information and advice......Page 454
14.8 References......Page 456
15.1 Introduction......Page 461
15.1.2 Use of edible coatings with fruit and vegetables......Page 462
15.2.1 Pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms of concern to fruits and vegetables......Page 464
15.2.2 Edible coating materials......Page 466
Polysaccharides......Page 469
Lipids......Page 473
Proteins......Page 474
Other materials......Page 475
Antimycotics......Page 477
Plant extracts......Page 478
Silver ion antimicrobials......Page 479
Direct inoculation method (antibacterial effectiveness of film discs)......Page 480
Inhibition zone test......Page 485
Surface spreading test......Page 486
Headspace gas composition assay......Page 487
15.3 Recommendations......Page 488
15.3.3 Adhesion of coating......Page 489
15.3.5 Labeling of coated foods......Page 490
15.4 Sources of additional information......Page 491
15.5 References......Page 492
16.1 Introduction......Page 500
16.3 Factors that affect fresh produce shelf-life......Page 501
16.4.1 Spoilage microorganisms......Page 503
Clostridium botulinum......Page 504
Listeria monocytogenes......Page 505
Other pathogenic microorganisms......Page 506
16.5.1 High O2 MAP......Page 507
16.5.3 Novel MAP research......Page 508
16.6 Future trends and research directions......Page 513
16.7 Conclusions and sources of further information and advice......Page 514
16.8 References......Page 516
17.1 Introduction......Page 520
17.2.1 Plant extracts......Page 521
17.2.2 Propolis......Page 523
17.2.3 Jasmonates......Page 524
17.2.4 Glucosinolates......Page 525
17.2.5 Essential oils......Page 527
17.2.6 Plant phenolic compounds......Page 528
17.3 Volatile compounds......Page 535
17.4 'Oxidative stress' and the control of post-harvest pathogens......Page 538
17.5 Compounds of microbial and animal origin......Page 540
17.6 Additive and synergistic combinations......Page 543
17.7 Extent of take-up by industry......Page 545
17.8 Concluding remarks......Page 547
17.9 References......Page 548
18.1 Introduction......Page 563
18.2.1 Room cooling......Page 566
18.2.2 Forced air cooling......Page 567
18.2.3 Hydrocooling......Page 568
18.2.5 Package icing......Page 571
18.3.1 Refrigerated storage......Page 572
18.3.2 Controlled atmosphere (CA) storage and gas treatments......Page 576
18.3.4 Biocontrol agents (BCA) and natural compounds in management of post-harvest diseases......Page 579
18.3.5 Irradiation......Page 580
18.4 Transport......Page 581
18.4.1 Trucks......Page 584
Containerised transport......Page 587
Conventional refrigerated cargo ships......Page 589
18.4.3 Aircraft......Page 591
18.4.4 Trains......Page 594
18.4.5 Multimodal transport......Page 595
18.5 Final remarks......Page 597
18.6 References......Page 600
19.1 Introduction......Page 606
19.2 Water activity: microbial growth, death and survival......Page 608
19.3 Combinations of water activity reduction with other preservation factors......Page 612
19.4 Strengths and weaknesses: future trends......Page 622
19.4.2 Interactions between stress factors......Page 623
19.4.3 Stress factor stability and/or availability......Page 625
19.4.4 Quantification of microbial response to factors in combination......Page 628
19.5 Calculations involved in the adjustment of aw of high-moisture fruits......Page 630
19.6 References......Page 633