Implementations and Applications of Machine Learning (Studies in Computational Intelligence, 782)

Preface
	Reference
Contents
Parallel 3-Parent Genetic Algorithm with Application to Routing in Wireless Mesh Networks
	1 Introduction
	2 P3PGA Algorithm
	3 Simulated Performance, Results, and Discussion
	4 P3PGA for Minimal Cost Route Evaluation
	5 Implementation and Performance of the Proposed Approach
		5.1 Comparative Performance of 100 Node Client WMNs
		5.2 Comparative Performance of 500 Node Client WMNs
		5.3 Comparative Performance of 1000 Node Client WMNs
		5.4 Comparative Performance of 2000 Node Client WMNs
		5.5 Comparative Performance of 2500 Node Client WMNs
		5.6 Overall Performance Considering all Networks
	6 Conclusions
	References
Application of Evolutionary Algorithms to Power System Stabilizer Design
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Oscillations in Electrical Power Systems and Power Systems Stabilizers
		1.2 Algorithms for Parameter Optimization: Differential Evolution and Population-Based Incremental Learning
	2 Problem Statement
		2.1 Overview
		2.2 State-Space Representation
		2.3 Linearization
		2.4 Modal Analysis
	3 The Differential Evolution Algorithm
		3.1 Overview
		3.2 Detailed DE Algorithm Description
			3.2.1 Population Structure
			3.2.2 Initialization
			3.2.3 Mutation
			3.2.4 Crossover
			3.2.5 Selection
			3.2.6 Termination
		3.3 Self-Adaptive DE Algorithms
	4 Population-Based Incremental Learning (PBIL)
		4.1 Overview
		4.2 Binary Encoding, Probability Vector, and Population
		4.3 Mutation
		4.4 Learning Process
		4.5 Termination
	5 Application of DE and PBIL to PSS Design
		5.1 Overview
		5.2 System Configurations
		5.3 Single Machine Infinite Bus System: Results of Optimization
		5.4 Two-Area Multimachine System: Results of Optimization
		5.5 Sensitivity of Differential Evolution to Algorithm Control Parameters.
			5.5.1 Effects of F and CR Parameters on DE Convergence
			5.5.2 Effect of Population Size
		5.6 Application of Adaptive DE to PSS Design
		5.7 Performance Summary
	6 Chapter Summary
	References
Automatic Sign Language Manual Parameter Recognition (I): Survey
	1 Background and Motivation
	2 Skin Detection
		2.1 Static Skin Detection
		2.2 Parametric Skin Detection
		2.3 Non-parametric Skin Detection
	3 Hand Tracking
		3.1 Approaches to Tracking a Single Hand
		3.2 Approaches to Tracking Both Hands
	4 Hand Shape and Finger-spelling Recognition
		4.1 Rule-Based Approaches
		4.2 Machine Learning Approaches
	5 Hand Motion/Gesture Recognition
	6 Summary and Conclusions
	References
Automatic Sign Language Manual Parameter Recognition (II): Comprehensive System Design
	1 Introduction
	2 Hand Retrieval
		2.1 Input Capture
		2.2 Hand Detection
		2.3 Skin Detection
		2.4 Face Detection
		2.5 Face Histogram Computation
		2.6 Enhanced Skin Highlighting Principle and Its Application to the Left and Right Hands
		2.7 Computation of Enhanced Histograms for the Hands and Integration into the Face Histogram
		2.8 Enhanced Skin Highlighting for the Final Skin Image
		2.9 Motion Detection
		2.10 Combination of Skin and Motion Images
		2.11 Hand Tracking
			2.11.1 Data Association for Object Tracking
			2.11.2 Tracking Initialisation
			2.11.3 Tracking Update
	3 Manual Parameter Representation and Recognition
		3.1 Hold Detection for Motion Representation
			3.1.1 Determining When the Hand Starts Moving
			3.1.2 Determining Stops or Changes in Direction of the Hand
	4 Hand Segmentation
	5 Feature Representation
	6 Hand Orientation and Shape Recognition
	7 SignWriting Lookup and Transcription
	8 Summary
	References
Computer Vision Algorithms for Image Segmentation, Motion Detection, and Classification
	1 Introduction
	2 Image Segmentation
		2.1 Adaptive Gaussian Thresholding and Image Inversion
		2.2 Cross Correlation Template Matching
		2.3 Viola–Jones Face Detection
			2.3.1 Haar-Like Wavelet Features and Their Computation
			2.3.2 Integral Image Representation for Haar-Like Wavelet Computation
			2.3.3 Selection of Features Using AdaBoost and Arrangement into a Rejection Cascade
	3 Motion Detection Using Gaussian Mixture Modeling
	4 Feature Representation Using the Histogram of Oriented Gradients Feature Descriptor
	5 Support Vector Machine Classification
		5.1 Support Vector Machine Classification Principle
		5.2 Mapping onto Higher-Dimensional Spaces
		5.3 Multi-Class SVM Classification Techniques
			5.3.1 One-Versus-All
			5.3.2 One-Versus-One
			5.3.3 Directed Acyclic Graph Support Vector Machine
		5.4 n-Fold Cross-Validation
	6 Conclusion
	References
Overview of Deep Learning in Facial Recognition
	1 Introduction
	2 Neural Nets: Basic Structure and Function
		2.1 History
		2.2 Basic Concepts and Constructs in Deep Learning
			2.2.1 Single-Layer Perceptron
			2.2.2 The Multilayer Perceptron
			2.2.3 Training of MLP\'s
		2.3 Underlearning and Overlearning
		2.4 Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN)
			2.4.1 Convolutional Layers
			2.4.2 Guiding Principles of Convolutional Layer Design
			2.4.3 CNN Layer Hyperparameters: Window Size, Depth, Stride, and Padding
			2.4.4 Pooling
			2.4.5 Classifiers on CNN Outputs
	3 Neural Net Enhancements and Optimizations
		3.1 Producing Probability Outputs with Softmax
		3.2 Loss Functions
			3.2.1 Cross-Entropy Loss
			3.2.2 Contrastive Loss
			3.2.3 Center Loss and Contrastive Center Loss
			3.2.4 Triplet Loss
			3.2.5 Loss Functions Based on Angular Distances
		3.3 Optimization of Learning Rate
			3.3.1 Adaptive Gradient Descent (AdaGrad)
			3.3.2 Delta Adaptive Gradient Descent (AdaDelta)
		3.4 Enhanced Training Techniques
			3.4.1 Bagging
			3.4.2 Boosting
			3.4.3 Dropout
	4 Facial Recognition
		4.1  Convolutional Neural Net Models for Facial Recognition
			4.1.1 DeepFace
			4.1.2 DeepID (2015)
			4.1.3 FaceNet (2015)
			4.1.4 VGGFace (2015)
			4.1.5 SphereFace (2017)
			4.1.6 CosFace (2018)
			4.1.7 ArcFace (2018)
		4.2 Facial Recognition Without Constraint Using Deep Learning
			4.2.1 Data Variability Issues
		4.3 Facial Recognition Datasets
			4.3.1 Labeled Faces in the Wild (LFW)
			4.3.2 CASIA-WebFace
			4.3.3 VGGFace and VGGFace2
			4.3.4 Similar Looking Labeled Faces in the Wild (SLLFW)
	5 Conclusion
	References
Improving Deep Unconstrained Facial Recognition by Data Augmentation
	1 Introduction
	2 Facial Recognition System Design Elements
		2.1 Overview
		2.2 Data Augmentation
			2.2.1 Data Augmentation Overview
			2.2.2 3-D Face Reconstruction
			2.2.3 Lighting Variation
		2.3 CNN Training for Classification
			2.3.1 Overview
			2.3.2 Features Extraction
	3 Experimental Setup
		3.1 Computational Platform
		3.2 Description of CNN Model
			3.2.1 Inputs
			3.2.2 Filters
			3.2.3 Subsampling (Pooling)
		3.3 Datasets Used
			3.3.1 Labeled Faces in the Wild (LFW)
			3.3.2 ORL Database
			3.3.3 Yale Face Database B
		3.4 Experimental Training and Testing Configurations
			3.4.1 Experiment 1: LFW Without Data Augmentation
			3.4.2 Experiment 2: LFW with Data Augmentation
	4 Results and Interpretation
		4.1 Evaluation on ORL
		4.2 Evaluation on YaleB
	5 Conclusion
	References
Improved Plant Species Identification Using Convolutional Neural Networks with Transfer Learning and Test Time Augmentation
	1  Introduction
	2 Convolutional Neural Networks
	3 CNN Architectures
	4 Experimental Setup
	5 Results and Discussion
	6 Summary
	References
Simulation of Biological Learning with Spiking Neural Networks
	1 Introduction
	2 Mathematical Neuron Models
		2.1 Integrate and Fire (IF) Model
		2.2 Leaky Integrate and Fire (LIF) Model
		2.3 Conductance-Based Neuron Model
	3 Spike-time-dependent plasticity learning algorithm
		3.1 Description of STDP
		3.2 Handwritten digit recognition using STDP
	4 SNN Simulation Software
		4.1 Overview
		4.2 Brian2 Simulator
		4.3 NEURON Simulator
		4.4 GENESIS Simulator
		4.5 NEST Simulator
	5 Hardware Implementations
		5.1 Overview
		5.2 IBM TrueNorth
		5.3 Reconfigurable On-Line Learning Spiking (ROLLS) neuromorphic processor
		5.4 NeuroGrid
		5.5 SpiNNaker
	6 Conclusion
	References
An Efficient Algorithm for Mining Frequent Itemsets and Association Rules
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Problem Decomposition
	2 Outline of the Binary-Based ARM Algorithm
		2.1 Binary Data Representation
		2.2 Masks and Bitwise Operations
		2.3 Itemset Pruning via Merging Operation
		2.4 Binary-Based Algorithm Description
			2.4.1 Top-Level Description
			2.4.2 Binary Data Representation
			2.4.3 Procedure for Finding Frequent 1-Itemsets
			2.4.4 Procedure for Generating Frequent Itemsets with Multiple Items
			2.4.5 Phase II: Extracting Association Rules
		2.5 Datasets
		2.6 Software and Hardware Specifications
		2.7 Execution Time Benchmarking
		2.8 Memory Usage Benchmarking
		2.9 Summary
	References
Receiver Operating Characteristic Curves in Binary Classification of Protein Secondary Structure Data
	1 Introduction
	2 Classification of Protein Shape
	3 Sensitivity and Specificity
	4 Receiver Operating Characteristics (ROC) Curves
	5 A Practical Example: Assessment of NN-GORV-II Algorithm for Structure Identification
	6 Summary
	References
Budget Reconciliation Through Dynamic Programming
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Discrepancies in Military Accounting
		1.2 Dynamic Programming Overview, and a Simple Example from Biochemistry
			1.2.1 Budget Reconciliation with Dynamic Programming
	2 Methods
		2.1 Dynamic Programming Algorithm Step-by-Step Description
		2.2 Code Structure
			2.2.1 Initialization
			2.2.2 Generation of Simulated Commits and Obligations
			2.2.3 Loop over N: Dynamic Programming Process
			2.2.4 Recovery of Solution and Output of Statistics
	3 Results
		3.1 Simulation
		3.2 Application of Algorithm to Real Budget Data
	4 Conclusions
	References
Index