Immunity to parasitic infections

Content: List of Contributors xiii  Introduction: Immunoparasitology: The Making of a Modern Immunological science 1   Alan Sher    Section 1    1 Notes on the Immune System 15   Tracey J. Lamb   1.1 The immune system 15  1.2 Innate immune processes 17  1.3 The complement cascade 19  1.4 Innate recognition 20  1.5 Pattern recognition receptors 21  1.6 Innate immune cells 23  1.7 Communication in the immune system 31  1.8 Adaptive immunity 31  1.9 The role of theMHC in the immune response 34  1.10 T cell activation and cellular-mediated immunity 36  1.11 B cells and the humoral response 43  1.12 Cell trafficking around the body 49  1.13 Cellular immune effector mechanisms 50  1.14 Hypersensitivity reactions 52  References for further reading 54   Section 2    2 Introduction to Protozoan Infections 61   David B. Guiliano and Tracey J. Lamb   2.1 The protozoa 61  2.2 Amoebozoa 62  2.3 Excavata 67  2.4 Harosa 75  2.5 Protozoa that are now fungi 81  2.6 Taxonomy and the evolution of the parasitic protozoa 82  2.7 Genomic and post genomic exploration of protozoan biology 83  2.8 Summary 87  2.9 General information on protozoa 88  References for further reading 88   3 Apicomplexa:Malaria 91   Tracey J. Lamb and Francis M. Ndung'u   3.1 Malaria 91  3.2 Recognition ofmalaria parasites 94  3.3 Innate effector mechanisms 95  3.4 Adaptive immunity 98  3.5 Memory responses 101  3.6 Immune evasion 101  3.7 Immunopathology 103  References for further reading 105   4 Apicomplexa: Toxoplasma gondii 107   EmmaWilson   4.1 Introduction 107  4.2 Life cycle and pathogenesis 107  4.3 Innate immune responses 111  4.4 Evasion strategies 113  4.5 Adaptive immune responses 115  4.6 CNS infection 117  4.7 Conclusions 118  References for further reading 118   5 Apicomplexa: Cryptosporidium 121   Jan R. Mead andMichael J. Arrowood   5.1 Life cycle 122  5.2 Clinical presentation 123  5.3 General immune responses in cryptosporidiosis 124  5.4 Innate effector mechanisms 125  5.5 Adaptive immunity 127  5.6 Memory responses 131  5.7 Antigens eliciting the immune response 132  5.8 Immune evasion 132  5.9 Immunopathology in the gut and intestinal tract 134  References for further reading 134   6 Diplomonadida: Giardia 139   Steven Singer   6.1 The life cycle and pathogenesis of Giardia infection 139  6.2 Recognition of Giardia by the immune system 141  6.3 Innate effector mechanisms against Giardia 142  6.4 Adaptive immunity against Giardia 143  6.5 Memory responses 145  6.6 Antigens eliciting the immune response 146  6.7 Immune evasion 147  6.8 Immunopathology 148  6.9 Summary 150  References for further reading 150   7 Kinetoplastids: Leishmania 153   IngridM?? uller and Pascale Kropf   7.1 The pathogenesis of Leishmania infection 153  7.2 Life cycle 154  7.3 Parasite transmission and avoidance of immune responses 155  7.4 Innate effector mechanisms: the role of neutrophils in Leishmania infection 157  7.5 Adaptive immunity: lessons from L. major infections of mice 158  7.6 Arginase promotes Leishmania parasite growth 162  7.7 Memory responses 163  References for further reading 164   8 Kinetoplastids: Trypanosomes 165   Jeremy Sternberg   8.1 The African trypanosomes (Trypanosoma brucei ssp.) 165  8.2 Pathogenesis of sleeping sickness 167  8.3 Variant surface glycoprotein -- the key to trypanosome-host interactions 168  8.4 The humoral response to African trypanosomes 172  8.5 T cell responses in African trypanosome infections 173  8.6 Innate defence mechanisms: trypanosome lytic factor 173  8.7 Immunopathology and VSG 174  8.8 Summary 175  References for further reading 176   9 Kinetoplastids: Trypanosoma cruzi (Chagas disease) 179   Rick Tarleton   9.1 Life cycle and transmission 180  9.2 Immune control and disease 181  9.3 Innate recognition of T. cruzi 182  9.4 Adaptive immunity 183  9.5 Regulation of immune responses and parasite persistence 186  9.6 Conclusions 189  References for further reading 189   Section 3    10 Introduction to Helminth Infections 195   David B. Guiliano   10.1 Acanthocephala 196  10.2 Nematodes 196  10.3 Pentastomida 203  10.4 Platyhelminthes 203  10.5 The evolution of parasitism within the helminths: divergent phyla with common themes 208  10.6 Genomic and post-genomic exploration of helminth biology 211  10.7 Summary 211  References for further reading 213   11 Nematoda: Filarial Nematodes 217   Sabine Specht and Achim Hoerauf   11.1 The life cycle and pathogenesis of filarial nematode infections 217  11.2 Animal models of filariasis 220  11.3 Immune responsesmounted against filarial nematodes 221  11.4 Innate immunity 221  11.5 Adaptive immunity 224  11.6 Immune evasion 225  11.7 Immunopathology 228  References for further reading 229   12 Nematoda: Ascaris lumbricoides 231   Christina Dold   12.1 Introduction 231  12.2 Ascaris infection displays an over-dispersed frequency distribution 232  12.3 Life cycle 232  12.4 Pathogenesis of infection 233  12.5 Animal models of Ascaris infection 234  12.6 Immune responses generated against the migratory phase of Ascaris 235  12.7 The cytokine response to Ascaris lumbricoides 237  12.8 The humoral response to Ascaris lumbricoides 238  12.9 Antigens eliciting immune responses in Ascaris infection 241  12.10 Conclusions 242  References for further reading 243   13 Nematoda: Hookworms 247   Soraya Gaze, HenryMcSorley and Alex Loukas   13.1 Pathogenesis of hookworminfection 247  13.2 The life cycle of hookworms 248  13.3 Animal models of hookworminfection 249  13.4 Innate immune responses to hookworms 251  13.5 Adaptive immunity 252  13.6 Cytokine responses 253  13.7 Antibody responses 254  13.8 Antigens eliciting the immune response 255  13.9 Memory responses 255  13.10 Immunoregulatory aspects of the anti-hookwormimmune response 256  13.11 Conclusion 258  References for further reading 259   14 Nematoda: Trichuris 263   Colby Zaph   14.1 Trichuris infection 263  14.2 Life cycle and pathogenesis 264  14.3 Immunity to Trichuris 265  14.4 Recognition by the immune system 265  14.5 Innate immune responses 265  14.6 Adaptive immune responses 269  14.7 Immune memory 269  14.8 Vaccines 270  14.9 Trichuris as a therapeutic 270  14.10 Summary 271  References for further reading 271   15 Nematoda: Trichinella 275   Judith A. Appleton, Lisa K. Blum and Nebiat G. Gebreselassie   15.1 Life cycle 275  15.2 Pathogenesis 277  15.3 Adaptive immunity 278  15.4 Immunopathology 282  15.5 Evasion strategies 283  References for further reading 284   16 Trematoda: Schistosomes 287   Mark Wilson   16.1 The schistosome life cycle 287  16.2 Immunological recognition of schistosomes 290  16.3 Innate effector mechanisms 291  16.4 Adaptive immunity 292  16.5 Memory responses 297  16.6 Schistosome antigens eliciting immune responses 298  16.7 Immune evasion 298  16.8 Schistosomiasis and immunopathology 299  References for further reading 303   17 Cestoda: Tapeworm Infection 307   C'esar A. Terrazas,Miriam Rodr'yguez-Sosa and Luis I. Terrazas   17.1 The life cycle of tapeworms 307  17.2 Epidemiology 309  17.3 Pathology 310  17.4 Innate immunity 311  17.5 Adaptive immunity 312  17.6 Antigens eliciting the immune responses 315  17.7 Immunomodulation or evasivemechanisms 316  17.8 Echinococcosis 316  17.9 Conclusions 320  References for further reading 320   Section 4    18 Co-infection: Immunological Considerations 325   Joanne Lello   18.1 Co-infection is the rule rather than the exception 325  18.2 Interactions between co-infecting parasites 326  18.3 The Th1/Th2 paradigm in co-infection 327  18.4 Co-infection can alter disease severity 328  18.5 Modelling parasite interactions during co-infection 329  18.6 Co-infection as a therapy? 330  18.7 Consideration of co-infection in an ecological framework 331  18.8 Concluding remarks 332  References for further reading 333   19 HIV and Malaria Co-infection 335   Aubrey Cunnington and EleanorM. Riley    19.1 The endemicity of HIV and malaria 335  19.2 HIV infection 335  19.3 Immunopathogenesis of HIV 341  19.4 Interactions between malaria and HIV 343  19.5 Effect of co-infection on treatment of HIV and malaria infections 347  19.6 Combined effects of HIV and malaria on susceptibility to other diseases 348  19.7 Malaria and HIV vaccines 349  19.8 Summary 351  References for further reading 351   20 HIV and Leishmania Co-infection 353   JavierMoreno   20.1 Leishmania parasitaemia is increased in HIV-Leishmania co-infection 354  20.2 Leishmania infection increases viral replication rate 354  20.3 Cell specific interactions between HIV-1 and Leishmania 355  20.4 Immune response interactions between HIV-1 and Leishmania 357  20.5 Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in HIV-1/Leishmania co-infection 358  References for further reading 359   21 Gastrointestinal Nematodes and Malaria 361   Mathieu Nacher   21.1 Introduction 361  21.2 Results from field studies in humans are conflicting 361  21.3 Immune responses in GI nematode and malaria co-infections 363  21.4 Stereotypical but different 370  21.5 Animal models of GI nematode-malaria co-infection 370  21.6 Conclusions 372  References for further reading 372   22 Malaria and Schistosomes 375   ShonaWilson and Jamal Khalife   22.1 The epidemiology of schistosomiasis and malaria co-infection 375  22.2 Study design for malaria/schistosome co-infection studies 376  22.3 Antibody responses 380  22.4 Cytokine responses 382  22.5 Contribution of experimental models to the understanding of Schistosoma mansoni and Plasmodium co-infection 384  22.6 Conclusions 385  References for further reading 385   Section 5    23 Hygiene and Other Early Childhood Influences on the Subsequent Function of the Immune System 391   Graham A.W. Rook   23.1 Introduction 392  23.2 The Hygiene Hypothesis (or 'Old Friends' hypothesis) 392  23.3 Epidemiological transitions 393  23.4 Compensatory genetic variants 394  23.5 The critical organisms and their immunological role 395  23.6 Helminth infections and allergic disorders 395  23.7 Helminths and non-allergic chronic inflammatory disorders: human data 396  23.8 Animal models of helminth infection used to test the Hygiene Hypothesis 397  23.9 Non-helminthic 'Old Friends' 397  23.10 Mechanisms of immunoregulation 398  23.11 Conclusions 399  References for further reading 400   24 Nematodes as Therapeutic Organisms 401   William Harnett andMargaretM. Harnett   24.1 Evidence that parasitic nematodes can protect humans from allergy and autoimmunity 401  24.2 Mechanism of action 404  24.3 Nematodemolecules involved in preventing allergic/autoimmune disease 408  24.4 Clinical aspects 412  References for further reading 413   25.1 Vaccination AgainstMalaria 417   AlbertoMoreno   25.1.1 Malaria vaccines: proof of concept 417  25.1.2 Vaccine development 419  25.1.3 Pre-erythrocytic vaccines 420  25.1.4 Erythrocytic vaccines 423  25.1.5 Transmission-blocking vaccines 425  25.1.6 Whole organism vaccines 426  25.1.7 P. vivax vaccines 427  25.1.8 Concluding remarks 429  References for further reading 429   25.2 Current Approaches to the Development of a Vaccine Against Leishmaniasis 431   Yasuyuki Goto and Steven G. Reed   25.2.1 Vaccination against leishmaniasis 432  25.2.2 Anti-amastigote vaccines 432  25.2.3 Anti-saliva vaccines 436  25.2.4 Transmission prevention vaccines 436  25.2.5 Role of an adjuvant in vaccine development 436  25.2.6 Future directions 438  References for further reading 438   25.3 Vaccination Against Hookworms 441   Brent Schneider,Maria Victoria Periago and Jeffrey M. Bethony   25.3.1 The need for a vaccine 441  25.3.2 The Human HookwormVaccine Initiative 442  25.3.3 The history of hookwormvaccines: experiments in dogs 443  25.3.4 Antibody production against canine hookworm 443  25.3.5 Vaccination against hookwormwith irradiated larvae 444  25.3.6 Lessons from vaccination with irradiated larvae 445  25.3.7 Research identifying target proteins for an anti-hookwormvaccine 446  25.3.8 A human hookwormvaccine phase 1 clinical trial based on Na-ASP2 453  25.3.9 The HHVI takes a different approach 454  25.3.10 Developments through the last century and the future 455  References for further reading 456   25.4 Current Approaches to the Development of a Vaccine Against Filarial Nematodes 459   Sara Lustigman   25.4.1 Introduction to anti-filarial nematode vaccines 459  25.4.2 Anti-O. volvulus and anti-LF vaccines are a valid approach to advance control measures against onchocerciasis and lymphatic filariasis 461  25.4.3 Future directions for vaccine development 466  25.4.4 Discovery of new vaccine candidates 467  References for further reading 468  Abbreviations 471  Glossary 479  Index 493