Imaging of Bones and Joints. A Concise, Multimodality Approach

Imaging of Bones and Joints: A Concise, Multimodality Approach
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Title Page
Copyright
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Contributors
Abbreviations
How to Use This Book
1 Acute Trauma and Overuse Injuries: Essentials
	1.1 Normal Skeletal Development Variations, and Transitions to Pathologic Conditions
		1.1.1 Normal Skeletal Development
		1.1.2 Variations and Disturbances of Skeletal Development
		1.1.3 Transitions to Pathologic States
	1.2 Fractures: Definition, Types, and Classifications
		1.2.1 Definition and Classification
		1.2.2 Fracture Types
		1.2.3 Classifications
	1.3 Fractures in Children
		1.3.1 Special Features of Fractures in Children
		1.3.2 Battered-Child Syndrome
	1.4 Fractures of the Articular Surfaces: Subchondral, Chondral, and Osteochondral Fractures
		1.4.1 Subchondral Fracture
		1.4.2 Chondral Fracture
		1.4.3 Osteochondral Fracture
	1.5 Stress and Insufficiency Fractures
		1.5.1 Classification
		1.5.2 Insufficiency Fractures and Destructive Arthropathy
		1.5.3 Pathologic Fractures
		1.5.4 Transient Osteoporosis and Transient Bone Marrow Edema
	1.6 Fracture Healing
		1.6.1 Primary Fracture Healing (Direct Cortical Reconstruction
		1.6.2 Secondary Fracture Healing (Fracture Healing by Callus Formation)
		1.6.3 Radiological Assessment after Fracture Fixation of the Peripheral Skeleton
		1.6.4 Radiological Assessment after Implantation of a Joint Prosthesis in the Peripheral Skeleton
	1.7 Complications after Fractures
		1.7.1 Delayed Union, Nonunion, and Posttraumatic Bone Cyst Formation
		1.7.2 Posttraumatic Disturbances of Growth in Children and Adolescents
		1.7.3 Disuse Osteoporosis
		1.7.4 Complex Regional Pain Syndrome
		1.7.5 Posttraumatic Osteoarthritis
	1.8 Traumatic and Overuse Injuries to Muscles, Tendons, and Tendon Insertions
		1.8.1 Muscles
		1.8.2 Tendons
		1.8.3 Tendon Insertions (Enthesopathy)
	1.9 Practical Advice on Diagnostic Radiography in Traumatology
		1.9.1 Report of Findings
		1.9.2 Follow-Up Reviews
		1.9.3 What to Avoid
2 Acute Trauma and Chronic Overuse (According to Region)
	2.1 Cranial Vault, Facial Bones, and Skull Base
		2.1.1 Fractures of the Cranial Vault
		2.1.2 Basilar Skull Fractures
		2.1.3 Fractures of the Petrous Bone
		2.1.4 Facial Bone Fractures
	2.2 Spine
		2.2.1 Anatomy, Variants, Technique, and Indications
		2.2.2 Mechanisms of Injury and Classifications
		2.2.3 Special Traumatology of the Cervical Spine and the Craniocervical Junction
		2.2.4 Injury Patterns of the
		Stiff” Spine
		2.2.5 Stable or Unstable Fracture?
		2.2.6 Fresh or Old Fracture?
		2.2.7 Differential Diagnosis
		Osteoporotic Versus Pathologic Fracture”
		2.2.8 Stress Phenomena in the Spine: Stress Reaction and Stress Fracture (Spondylolysis of the Neural Arches
		2.2.9 Value of MRI in Acute Trauma
		2.2.10 Radiological Assessment after Surgery of the Spine
	2.3 Pelvis
		2.3.1 Fractures of the Pelvic Ring
		2.3.2 Acetabular Fractures
		2.3.3 Fatigue Fractures of the Pelvis
		2.3.4 Hip Dislocation/Fracture Dislocations of the Hip
		2.3.5 Pubalgia (Osteitis Pubis)
	2.4 Shoulder Joint
		2.4.1 Anatomy, Variants, and Technique
		2.4.2 Impingement
		2.4.3 Rotator Cuff Pathology and Biceps Tendinopathy
		2.4.4 Pathology of the Rotator Interval
		2.4.5 Shoulder Instability
		2.4.6 Other Labral Pathology
		2.4.7 Postoperative Complications
	2.5 Shoulder Girdle and ThoracicWall
		2.5.1 Sternoclavicular Dislocation
		2.5.2 Clavicular Fracture
		2.5.3 Acromioclavicular Dislocation
		2.5.4 Scapular Fracture
		2.5.5 Sternal and Rib Fractures
		2.5.6 Stress Phenomena of the Acromioclavicular Joint
		2.5.7 Posttraumatic Conditions Secondary to Injuries of the Shoulder Girdle
	2.6 Upper Arm
		2.6.1 Proximal Humeral Fractures
		2.6.2 Humeral Shaft Fractures
		2.6.3 Distal Humeral Fractures
		2.6.4 Radiological Assessment after Surgery of the Upper Arm
	2.7 Elbow Joint
		2.7.1 Medial Compartment
		2.7.2 Lateral Compartment
		2.7.3 Anterior Compartment
		2.7.4 Posterior Compartment
		2.7.5 Osteochondral Lesions: Traumatic Lesions, Panner
		s Disease, and Osteochondritis Dissecans
		2.7.6 Neuropathies
	2.8 Forearm
		2.8.1 Proximal Fractures of the Forearm
		2.8.2 Radial Head and Neck Fractures
		2.8.3 Shaft Fractures of the Forearm
		2.8.4 Distal Forearm Fractures
		2.8.5 Instability of the Distal Radioulnar Joint
		2.8.6 Ulnar Impingement Syndrome
		2.8.7 Radiological Assessment after Surgery of the Forearm
	2.9 TheWrist
		2.9.1 Anatomy, Variants, Technique, and Indications
		2.9.2 Fractures and Dislocations and Their Complications
		2.9.3 Carpal Instabilities and Malalignments
		2.9.4 Triangular Fibrocartilage Complex
		2.9.5 Ulnocarpal Impaction Syndrome
		2.9.6 Tendons of theWrist
	2.10 Metacarpals and Fingers
		2.10.1 Anatomy, Technique, and Indications
		2.10.2 Fractures
		2.10.3 Tendon and Ligament Lesions
	2.11 Hip Joint
		2.11.1 Anatomy, Variants, and Techniques
		2.11.2 Fractures
		2.11.3 Femoroacetabular Impingement
		2.11.4 Labral Lesions
		2.11.5 Chondromalacia and Synovitis
		2.11.6 Muscle and Tendon Injuries
		2.11.7 Slipped Capital Femoral Epiphysis
		2.11.8 Radiological Assessment after Fracture Fixation and Joint Replacement of the Hip
	2.12 Femur and Soft Tissues of the Thigh
		2.12.1 Anatomy and Technique
		2.12.2 Fractures
		2.12.3 Muscle Injuries of the Thigh
		2.12.4 Radiological Assessment after Surgery of the Thigh
	2.13 Knee Joint
		2.13.1 Indications and Technique
		2.13.2 Cruciate Ligaments
		2.13.3 Medial Supporting Structures
		2.13.4 Lateral Supporting Structures
		2.13.5 Patella, Quadriceps Muscle, and Anterior Ligaments
		2.13.6 Menisci
		2.13.7 Cartilage
		2.13.8 Bursae and Plicae
		2.13.9 Findings after Cartilage Replacement Therapy
		2.13.10 Radiological Assessment of Knee Replacement Surgery
	2.14 Lower Leg
		2.14.1 Fractures
		2.14.2 Radiological Assessment of Surgery of the Lower Leg
		2.14.3 Soft Tissue Injuries and Stress Reactions of the Lower Leg
	2.15 Ankle Joint and Foot
		2.15.1 Anatomy, Variants, and Technique
		2.15.2 Fractures of the (True) Ankle Joint
		2.15.3 Osteochondral Lesions of the Talus
		2.15.4 Fractures of the Talus and Calcaneus
		2.15.5 Fractures and Dislocations of the Tarsal Bones
		2.15.6 Fractures and Dislocations of the Forefoot
		2.15.7 Radiological Assessment after Surgery of the Ankle and Foot
		2.15.8 Acquired Malalignments
		2.15.9 Ligaments
		2.15.10 Tendons
		2.15.11 Impingement Syndromes
		2.15.12 Tarsal Tunnel Syndrome
		2.15.13 Sinus Tarsi
		2.15.14 Plantar Fascia
		2.15.15 Plantar Plate and Turf Toe
		2.15.16 Morton
		s Neuroma
3 Infections of the Bones, Joints, and Soft tissues
	3.1 Osteomyelitis and Osteitis
		3.1.1 Terminology, Classification, and Infection Routes
		3.1.2 Hematogenous Osteomyelitis
		3.1.3 Chronic Exogenous Osteomyelitis
		3.1.4 Forms of Osteomyelitis (Specific Pathogens)
		3.1.5 Infections of the Spine
	3.2 Soft Tissue Infections
		3.2.1 Necrotizing Fasciitis
	3.3 Septic Arthritis
		3.3.1 Nonspecific Pathogens
		3.3.2 Tuberculous Arthritis
	3.4 Musculoskeletal Inflammations associated with HIV Infections
4 Tumors and Tumorlike Lesions of Bone, Joints, and the Soft Tissues
	4.1 General Aspects of Diagnostic Imaging of Skeletal Tumors
		4.1.1 The Role of the Radiologist in Assessing a Suspected Bone Tumor
		4.1.2 General Approach to a Suspected Bone Tumor
		4.1.3 Description of a Focal Bone Lesion
		4.1.4 Assessment of the Aggressiveness of a Bone Lesion: Growth Rate
		4.1.5 Staging of Bone Tumors
		4.1.6 Imaging Modalities for Tissue Diagnosis, Assessment of Biological Activity and Staging of Bone Tumors
	4.2 Primary Bone Tumors
		4.2.1 Osteogenic Tumors
		4.2.2 Chondrogenic Tumors
		4.2.3 Connective Tissue and Fibrohistiocytic Tumors
		4.2.4 Ewing
		s Sarcoma and Primitive Neuroectodermal Tumor
		4.2.5 Giant Cell Tumor
		4.2.6 Vascular Tumors
		4.2.7 Lipogenic Tumors
		4.2.8 Miscellaneous Tumors
	4.3 Tumorlike Lesions
		4.3.1 Osteoma, Bone Islands, and Osteopoikilosis
		4.3.2 Fibrous Cortical Defect and Nonossifying Fibroma
		4.3.3 Simple (Juvenile) Bone Cyst
		4.3.4 Aneurysmal Bone Cyst
		4.3.5 Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis
		4.3.6 Fibrous Dysplasia
		4.3.7 Vascular Malformations of the Bone (so-called Hemangioma)
		4.3.8 Less Common Tumorlike Lesions
	4.4 Metastases
		4.4.1 Monitoring
	4.5 Soft tissue Tumors
		4.5.1 Introduction
		4.5.2 Clinically Important Soft Tissue Tumors, also Partially Amenable to Classification Using Imaging Procedures
		4.5.3 Follow-up Reviews and Diagnostics for Recurrences of Soft Tissue Tumors
		4.5.4 Vascular Malformations
	4.6 Intra-articular Tumors and Tumorlike Lesions
		4.6.1 Loose Joint Bodies
		4.6.2 Synovial Chondromatosis
		4.6.3 Ganglion and Synovial Cyst
		4.6.4 Lipoma Arborescens
		4.6.5 Pigmented Villonodular Synovitis/Giant Cell Tumor of the Tendon Sheath
5 Bone Marrow
	5.1 Normal Bone Marrow
		5.1.1 Distribution and Age-dependent Physiological Conversion of Red to Yellow Marrow
		5.1.2 Reconversion of Yellow to Red Marrow/Bone Marrow Hyperplasia
	5.2 Anemias and Hemoglobinopathies
		5.2.1 Anemias
		5.2.2 Hemoglobinopathies (Thalassemia Sickle Cell Anemia)
	5.3 Metabolic Bone Marrow Alterations
		5.3.1 Hemosiderosis and Hemochromatosis
		5.3.2 Lipidoses and Lysosomal Storage Diseases
		5.3.3 Serous Atrophy
		5.3.4 Fat Accumulation Secondary to Osteoporosis
	5.4 Chronic Myeloproliferative Diseases
		5.4.1 Myelodysplastic Syndrome (Also Known as Preleukemia)
		5.4.2 Polycythemia Vera
		5.4.3 Myelofibrosis/ Osteomyelofibrosis
		5.4.4 Essential Thrombocythemia
		5.4.5 Systemic Mastocytosis
	5.5 Malignant Disorders of the Bone Marrow
		5.5.1 Multiple Myeloma/ Solitary Plasmacytoma
		5.5.2 Lymphoma
		5.5.3 Leukemia
	5.6 Therapy-related Bone Marrow Alterations
6 Osteonecroses of the Skeletal System
	6.1 Anatomy, Etiology, and Pathogenesis
	6.2 Bone Infarction
	6.3 Osteonecrosis
		6.3.1 Osteonecrosis of the Femoral Head
		6.3.2 Osteonecrosis of the Lunate
		6.3.3 Osteonecrosis of the Scaphoid
		6.3.4 Osteonecrosis of the Vertebrae
	6.4 Sequelae of Radiotherapy
	6.5 Pseudo-osteonecroses
7 Osteochondroses
	7.1 Anatomy, Etiology, and Pathogenesis
		7.1.1 What Do the Different Forms of Osteochondrosis Have in Common?
		7.1.2 To Which Disorders is the Term
		Osteochondrosis” Not Applicable?
	7.2 Articular Osteochondroses
		7.2.1 Perthes
		Disease
		7.2.2 Freiberg
		s Disease (Osteochondrosis of the Metatarsal Heads)
		7.2.3 K鰄ler
		s Disease Type I
		7.2.4 Panner
		s Disease and Hegemann
		s Disease
		7.2.5 Osteochondritis Dissecans
	7.3 Nonarticular (Apophyseal Osteochondroses
		7.3.1 What do Apophyseal Osteochondroses Have in Common?
		7.3.2 Osgood–Schlatter Disease
		7.3.3 Sinding–Larsen–Johansson Disease
		7.3.4 Sever
		s Disease
		7.3.5
		Little Leaguer
		s Elbow”
	7.4 Physeal Osteochondroses
		7.4.1 Scheuermann
		s Disease
		7.4.2 Blount
		s Disease
8 Metabolic, Hormonal, and Toxic Bone Disorders
	8.1 Osteoporosis
		8.1.1 Classification and Clinical Presentation of Osteoporosis
		8.1.2 Bone Density Testing
		8.1.3 Radiographic Findings in Osteoporosis
	8.2 Rickets and Osteomalacia
	8.3 Hyperparathyroidism and Hypoparathyroidism
		8.3.1 Hyperparathyroidism
		8.3.2 Hypoparathyroidism
	8.4 Renal Osteodystrophy
	8.5 Drug-induced Changes to the Bone
		8.5.1 Corticosteroids
		8.5.2 Other Drugs
	8.6 Amyloidosis
	8.7 Other Osteopathic Diseases
		8.7.1 Hemophilic Arthropathy
		8.7.2 Acromegaly
9 Congenital Disorders of Bone and Joint Development
	9.1 Bone Age Assessment in Growth Disorders
	9.2 Congenital Dysplasia of the Hip
	9.3 Congenital Deformities of the Foot
	9.4 Patellofemoral Dysplasia
	9.5 Scoliosis and Kyphosis
		9.5.1 Kyphosis
		9.5.2 Scoliosis
	9.6 Congenital Disorders of Skeletal Development
		9.6.1 Diagnostic Pathway for Classification of Skeletal Dysplasia
		9.6.2 The Most Common Neonatal Skeletal Dysplasias
10 Rheumatic Disorders
	10.1 Introduction
		10.1.1 Common Pathogenic Features
		10.1.2 Radiographic Features of the Peripheral Joints and their Role in Differential Diagnosis
		10.1.3 Radiographic Features of the Spine and Sacroiliac Joints and Their Differential Diagnosis
	10.2 Osteoarthritis of the Peripheral Joints
		10.2.1 Basic Principles of Imaging Techniques
		10.2.2 Individual Joints
		10.2.3 Treatment of Osteoarthritis
	10.3 Degeneration of the Spine
		10.3.1 Anatomy, Variants, and Information on Imaging and Technique
		10.3.2 Clinical Presentation of the Degenerative Spine
		10.3.3 Degenerative Disk Disease
		10.3.4 Juxtadiscal Bony Alterations
		10.3.5 Facet Joint and Uncovertebral Osteoarthritis and Degeneration based Spondylolisthesis
		10.3.6 Ligamentous and Soft Tissue Changes
		10.3.7 Spinal Canal Stenosis
		10.3.8 Instability, Segmental Hypermobility, and Functional Studies
	10.4 Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis
	10.5 Rheumatoid Arthritis and Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis
		10.5.1 Rheumatoid Arthritis
		10.5.2 Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis
	10.6 Spondylarthritis
		10.6.1 Ankylosing Spondylitis
		10.6.2 Reactive Arthritis
		10.6.3 Psoriatic Arthritis
		10.6.4 Enteropathic Arthritis
		10.6.5 Undifferentiated Spondylarthritis
	10.7 Chronic Recurrent Multifocal Osteomyelitis and SAPHO Syndrome
		10.7.1 Chronic Recurrent Multifocal Osteomyelitis
		10.7.2 SAPHO
	10.8 Articular Changes in Inflammatory Systemic Connective Tissue Diseases (Collagenoses)
		10.8.1 Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
		10.8.2 Progressive Systemic Sclerosis
		10.8.3 Polymyositis and Dermatomyositis
		10.8.4 Mixed Collagenoses
		10.8.5 Vasculitis
	10.9 Crystal-induced Arthropathies Osteopathies, and Periarthropathies
		10.9.1 Gout
		10.9.2 Calcium Pyrophosphate Deposition Disease (CPPD)
		10.9.3 Hydroxyapatite Crystal Deposition Disease
11 Miscellaneous Bone, Joint, and Soft Tissue Disorders
	11.1 Paget
	s Disease
	11.2 Sarcoidosis
	11.3 Hypertrophic Osteoarthropathy
	11.4 Melorheostosis
	11.3 Hypertrophic Osteoarthropathy
	11.4 Melorheostosis
	11.3 Hypertrophic Osteoarthropathy
	11.4 Melorheostosis
	11.5 Calcifications and Ossifications of the Soft Tissues
		11.5.1 Soft Tissue Calcifications
	11.5 Calcifications and Ossifications of the Soft Tissues
		11.5.1 Soft Tissue Calcifications
		11.5.2 Soft Tissue Ossifications
	11.6 Compartment Syndrome
	11.7 Rhabdomyolysis
	11.8 Peripheral Nerve Entrapment and Nerve Compression Syndromes
	11.9 Neuropathic Osteoarthropathy and Diabetic Foot
		11.9.1 Neuropathic Osteoarthropathy
	11.9.2 Diabetic Foot
	11.10 Adhesive Capsulitis
12 Interventions Involving the Bone, Soft Tissues, and Joints
	12.1 Arthrography
		12.1.1 Indications
		12.1.2 Contraindications
		12.1.3 Technique
		12.1.4 Complications
	12.2 Biopsy
		12.2.1 Indications
		12.2.2 Contraindications
		12.2.3 Technique
		12.2.4 Complications
		12.2.5 Results
	12.3 Drains
		12.3.1 Indications
		12.3.2 Contraindications
		12.3.3 Technique
		12.3.4 Complications
		12.3.5 Results
	12.4 Nerve Root Block
		12.4.1 Indications
		12.4.2 Contraindications
		12.4.3 Procedure
		12.4.4 Complications
		12.4.5 Trial Nerve Root Block
	12.5 Facet Block
	12.6 Vertebroplasty, Kyphoplasty and Sacroplasty
		12.6.1 Indications
		12.6.2 Imaging Procedures before Diagnosis
		12.6.3 Contraindications
		12.6.4 Complications
		12.6.5 Technique
		12.6.6 Results
	12.7 Laser Therapy and Radiofrequency Ablation
Index