Images of Jesus Christ in Islam: 2nd Edition

Front Cover......Page 1
Encyclopedia of Caves......Page 4
Copyright......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
 Exceptional caves......Page 24
 Evolution and adaptation......Page 25
Contributors......Page 26
 Article Format......Page 30
 Index......Page 31
Preface......Page 32
  Food availability in caves......Page 34
   How cave animals acquire more food and store nutrients......Page 35
   How cave animals save the acquired energy?......Page 37
   Enduring periods of starvation......Page 38
  Bibliography......Page 39
  Supply and consumption of do in groundwater......Page 41
  Small-scale heterogeneity in do in groundwater......Page 42
  Behavioral responses......Page 43
  Respiratory responses......Page 44
  During anoxia......Page 45
  Imbrication of adaptive strategies to low food resources and low oxygen supply......Page 46
  Bibliography......Page 47
  Darkness as key driver of troglomorphic trait modifications......Page 49
  Constructive vs regressive troglomorphic traits......Page 50
  Positive and relaxed selection in troglomorphic trait evolution......Page 51
  Positive vs relaxed selection in the regression of body pigmentation......Page 52
  Regressive and constructive evolution of UV light tolerance......Page 53
  Convergent troglomorphic trait evolution in other light-insulated environments......Page 54
  Bibliography......Page 55
   Feeding and foraging behavior......Page 57
   Social behaviors: Reproductive behaviors, schooling, and aggression......Page 58
   Activity and rhythms: Circadian rhythms and sleep......Page 60
   Genetic basis of behavior......Page 61
   Connecting morphology and behavior......Page 62
   Brain and behavior......Page 63
   Evolutionary history of cave behavior......Page 64
  Bibliography......Page 65
  Model systems for studying patterns and procsesses......Page 66
   Neutral mutations......Page 67
   Energy-economy......Page 68
   Inconsistent patterns: Phylogenetic effects, time, and microhabitats......Page 69
  Selection-function relationship......Page 71
  Bibliography......Page 72
  Historical development......Page 73
  The action of natural selection in caves......Page 74
  The selective regime in caves......Page 75
  The role of natural selection in colonization and speciation......Page 77
  Bibliography......Page 78
   Preadaptation......Page 80
   Mating behavior and hybridization......Page 81
  Hawaii......Page 82
   Cixiid planthoppers (Hemiptera: Fulgoromorpha: Cixiidae)......Page 83
   Wolf spiders (Arachnida: Lycosidae)......Page 86
  Conclusions......Page 87
  Bibliography......Page 88
  Geography and some historical data......Page 89
  Cave morphology and hydrology......Page 90
  Noncrustacean groups in the anchihaline fauna......Page 91
  Anchihaline crustacea......Page 92
  Biogeography......Page 94
  Trophic relations......Page 95
  Anchihaline fauna and humans......Page 96
  Bibliography......Page 97
  Archeology of the Mammoth Cave area......Page 98
   Archeological evidence......Page 99
   Interpretations......Page 100
  Conclusion......Page 102
  Bibliography......Page 103
  Introduction......Page 104
  Cave art in Europe......Page 105
  Bibliography......Page 108
  Development of troglomorphies......Page 109
  Postojna-planina cave system......Page 110
  Broader view......Page 112
  Asellus kosswigi......Page 113
  Continental scale......Page 114
  Prospects for the future......Page 115
  Bibliography......Page 117
  Natural history......Page 118
  Troglomorphic traits......Page 120
  Developmental basis of troglomorphic traits......Page 123
  Inheritance and genetic basis of troglomorphic traits......Page 124
  Evolution of troglomorphic traits......Page 125
  Bibliography......Page 126
  Introduction......Page 127
  Nursery roosts......Page 128
  Hibernation roosts......Page 129
  Ecosystem services and economic impacts......Page 131
  Threats......Page 132
  Conservation measures......Page 133
  Bibliography......Page 134
   Carabidae......Page 135
  Distribution......Page 137
  Life cycle......Page 138
  Evolution and diversification......Page 139
  Bibliography......Page 141
  Introduction......Page 142
  Geographic factors......Page 143
   Cave atmosphere......Page 144
   Energy supply......Page 148
   Copepoda......Page 149
   Ostracoda......Page 151
   Isopoda......Page 152
   Spelaeogriphacea......Page 153
   Opiliones......Page 154
   Diplopoda......Page 155
   Blattodea......Page 156
   Coleoptera......Page 157
  Conclusions......Page 158
  Bibliography......Page 159
  Biospeleological research......Page 160
  Subterranean biodiversity......Page 161
    Amphipoda......Page 163
    Actinopterygii......Page 164
    Diplopoda......Page 165
    Araneae......Page 166
    Coleoptera......Page 167
  Bibliography......Page 168
  Diversity comparisons to other continents......Page 169
  Troglomorphy and relictness......Page 171
  Geographic patterns within Europe......Page 174
  Bibliography......Page 178
  Current state of knowledge......Page 179
  Cave freshwater......Page 181
  Oligotrophic terrestrial habitats and troglobionts......Page 183
  Guano and guanobionts......Page 184
   Geographical patterns of species richness......Page 187
   Troglomorphy along environmental gradients......Page 191
   Tropical versus temperate subterranean biodiversity......Page 192
  Bats, guano, and biodiversity conservation......Page 193
  Endemism and vulnerability......Page 194
  Bibliography......Page 195
  Distribution of karst, caves, and cave biodiversity......Page 196
     Class Arachnida......Page 200
     Other Arachnids......Page 202
    Order Amphipoda (amphipods)......Page 203
    Class Diplopoda (millipedes)......Page 204
    Order Diptera (true flies)......Page 205
    Class Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes)......Page 206
    Class Aves (birds)......Page 207
  Discussion......Page 208
  Bibliography......Page 209
  Terrestrial cave faunas......Page 210
  Aquatic subterranean faunas......Page 217
  Bibliography......Page 219
  Small-scale features......Page 220
  Large-scale features......Page 221
  Breakdown mechanics......Page 222
  Geologic processes that initiate breakdown......Page 224
  Crystal wedging or limestone replacement to initiate breakdown......Page 225
  Role of breakdown in speleological processes......Page 226
  Bibliography......Page 227
  Physical and geologic setting......Page 228
  History of exploration......Page 229
   Breathing cave......Page 231
   Bobcat (Chestnut Ridge Cave system)......Page 232
   Blarney Stone (Chestnut Ridge Cave system)......Page 233
   Barberry......Page 234
   Battered Bar......Page 235
   By-the-road......Page 236
   Fuhls paradise pit......Page 237
  Special attributes......Page 238
  Bibliography......Page 239
 Chapter 23: Camps......Page 240
  Bibliography......Page 244
  Morphology and genesis......Page 245
   Modern hydrology......Page 247
   Cave sediments, speleothems, and dating......Page 248
  The fauna of Castleguard......Page 249
  Bibliography......Page 250
  Location and present environment......Page 251
  Cave deposits and processes......Page 252
  The prehistoric and historical sequence of cave occupations in the middle east......Page 253
  Bibliography......Page 255
  Physical environment and habitat zones......Page 256
  Energy flux and limitation......Page 257
  Nutrients......Page 258
  Bibliography......Page 259
  Geographic distribution......Page 260
  Co-occurrence of cavefishes......Page 262
  Morphological troglomorphy......Page 266
  Physiological, life history, and behavioral adaptations......Page 267
  Bibliography......Page 268
  The distribution and diversity of Chinese cavefish......Page 270
  Characteristics of Chinese cavefish......Page 271
  Morphology and genetic adaptation......Page 273
  Changes in body shape......Page 274
  Sensory apparatus......Page 275
  Eye degeneration......Page 278
  Disappearance of scales......Page 282
  Lack of diurnal rhythms......Page 283
  Phylogenesis, speciation mechanisms, and biogeography......Page 284
  Research and conservation......Page 286
  Bibliography......Page 287
  Types of caves......Page 288
  Caves as repositories......Page 290
  Caves as habitat......Page 291
  Bibliography......Page 292
  Characteristic formation history of caver organizations......Page 293
  Land trusts, conservancies, and caver villages......Page 294
  Public and private cave enterprise communities......Page 295
  International caver communities and organizations......Page 296
  Conclusion......Page 298
  Bibliography......Page 299
  Carbon fixation pathways......Page 300
  Reduced inorganic sulfur compounds......Page 302
  Iron and manganese......Page 303
  Chemolithoautotrophy in caves and karst settings......Page 304
  Sulfur cycle......Page 305
  Nitrogen cycle......Page 307
  Chemolithoautotrophically based cave ecosystems......Page 308
  Bibliography......Page 309
  Basic physical properties......Page 310
  Stratigraphy......Page 311
  Sediment production......Page 313
   Stream sediments......Page 314
  Geomorphic perspective......Page 315
  Bibliography......Page 316
   Morphology and size of dolines......Page 318
   The structure of dolines......Page 319
   Hydrological behavior and related solution processes in dolines......Page 320
   Examples of evolution......Page 322
   Summary of solution dolines......Page 326
   Collapse dolines......Page 327
   Intersection dolines......Page 329
  Poljes: The largest closed depressions in karst areas......Page 330
  Bibliography......Page 333
  Sea caves......Page 334
  Flank margin caves......Page 335
  Blue holes......Page 338
  Bibliography......Page 340
  Systematics and distribution......Page 341
  Troglomorphic traits......Page 346
  Diversity......Page 349
  Bibliography......Page 351
   General chemistry......Page 353
   Iron and manganese......Page 355
   Speleothems and cave deposits......Page 356
   Storm-enhanced transport of sediment-associated metals......Page 357
  Bibliography......Page 358
  NAPL characteristics and sources......Page 359
   Epikarst......Page 360
   Fractures, open drains, and sinking streams......Page 362
   Sediment......Page 363
  Bibliography......Page 364
  Stygobitic crustaceans......Page 366
   Class Remipedia......Page 367
    Subclass Mystocarida......Page 368
    Subclass Copepoda......Page 369
   Class Ostracoda......Page 371
    Superorder Syncarida......Page 372
    Superorder Peracarida......Page 373
    Superorder Eucarida......Page 377
  Bibliography......Page 380
  Relative versus absolute dating techniques......Page 381
  Burial dating with cosmogenic nuclides......Page 382
   Requirements for burial dating......Page 383
  Bibliography......Page 385
  Traits of the Dinaric karst......Page 386
  Structural geology of Dinarides......Page 389
  Lithology of the Dinaric karst......Page 390
  Karst features of the Dinaric karst......Page 391
  Land use......Page 394
  Bibliography......Page 395
  Introduction......Page 396
   Documentation issues......Page 397
   Information storage......Page 398
   Retrieval......Page 399
   Data safety......Page 400
   Publication and global access......Page 401
   Components......Page 402
   Database issues......Page 403
    Disadvantages......Page 404
  Bibliography......Page 405
  Background......Page 409
  Evolutionary classifications......Page 410
  Bibliography......Page 412
  Types of cave entrances......Page 413
  Statistics of cave entrances......Page 417
  Bibliography......Page 419
  The power of environmental DNA......Page 420
  The procedure......Page 421
  Challenges associated with groundwater and other subterranean habitats......Page 424
  Bibliography......Page 425
   In hydrogeology......Page 427
  Epikarst, a not yet fully agreed concept......Page 428
  Place of epikarst in karst evolution and morphology......Page 429
  Bibliography......Page 430
  Environmental conditions......Page 432
  Taxonomic composition......Page 434
  Estimating total species richness of epikarst copepods......Page 436
  Biogeography of epikarst species......Page 437
  Ecology of epikarst species......Page 438
  Bibliography......Page 439
   Vertical caves......Page 440
   Light sources......Page 441
   Clothing......Page 442
   Going up......Page 443
   Underwater caves......Page 444
  Bibliography......Page 445
 Chapter 48: Exploration of caves: Underwater exploration......Page 447
  Bibliography......Page 452
  Rigging......Page 453
  Descending......Page 455
  Ascending......Page 456
  Traverses and Tyroleans......Page 457
  Bibliography......Page 458
 Chapter 50: Folklore, myth, and legend, caves in......Page 459
   Sinking streams......Page 462
   Percolating water......Page 463
   Bats......Page 464
   Crickets......Page 465
  Tree roots......Page 466
  Bibliography......Page 467
  Exploration......Page 468
  Morphology and genesis......Page 470
    Oxic-sulfidic environments......Page 472
    Microxic-sulfidic zone......Page 473
  Conclusion......Page 474
  Bibliography......Page 476
   Hydrology and hydrogeology......Page 477
   Geology......Page 479
  Hydrology of the cave......Page 480
   Cave paleohydrology......Page 481
  Bibliography......Page 482
  General hypotheses on the mechanism of adaptation to the cave environment......Page 484
  General ecology of Gammarus minus......Page 485
  Variation in Gammarus minus......Page 486
  Population structure of Gammarus minus......Page 488
  Origin of troglomorphic cave populations of Gammarus minus......Page 489
  Bibliography......Page 490
  Electrical resistivity imaging......Page 492
  Ground-penetrating radar......Page 494
  Thermal variation......Page 495
  Cave radiolocation......Page 496
  Case study-New mexico brine well caverns......Page 497
  Bibliography......Page 499
  Introduction to glaciers......Page 501
  Englacial caves......Page 502
  Exploration of glacier caves......Page 505
  Bibliography......Page 506
  Guano: Definitions and importance......Page 507
  Guano microbiomes......Page 508
  Taxon-specific patterns and preference for guano types......Page 510
  Ecology of guano invertebrate communities......Page 513
  Guano metacommunities......Page 515
  Impacts and conservation issues......Page 516
  Bibliography......Page 517
  Occurrence of gypsum and types of gypsum karst......Page 518
  Implication of equilibrium chemistry and dissolution kinetics to speleogenesis in gypsum......Page 519
  Speleogenesis in different types of karst......Page 520
  Bibliography......Page 527
  Speleothems......Page 529
  Sources and depositional mechanisms of evaporite minerals......Page 531
  Bibliography......Page 535
  Physiographic setting......Page 536
  Geologic setting......Page 537
   Geological controls......Page 540
  Tectonics, passage levels, and time......Page 542
  River caves of the K Bàng massif......Page 543
  Bibliography......Page 545
  Anthodites......Page 547
  Cave shields......Page 548
  Subaqueous helictites......Page 551
  Subaqueous ``helictite bushes´´......Page 552
  Bibliography......Page 553
  The Anglo-Saxons......Page 554
  12th-Century histories and caves: William of Newburgh......Page 555
  Yet another historian or perhaps a satirist: Walter Map......Page 556
  The 13th century: Gervase of Tilbury......Page 557
  A 12th-century vision narrative: St. Patricks Purgatory......Page 558
  Bibliography......Page 559
  Cave description......Page 560
  Geology......Page 562
  Hydrogeology......Page 564
  Biology......Page 565
  Paleontology......Page 566
  Archaeology......Page 567
  Bibliography......Page 569
  Porous media aquifers......Page 570
   The triple porosity model......Page 571
   Conduit permeability......Page 572
   Karst groundwater basins and groundwater flow systems......Page 573
   The Karst water table......Page 574
   Discharge characteristics: Hydrographs......Page 575
   Water wells in Karst......Page 576
   Contaminant transport......Page 577
  Bibliography......Page 578
   Deep-seated hydrothermal Karst......Page 579
   Dissolution due to mixing of waters (CO2 and H2S)......Page 580
   Solution porosity......Page 581
   Phreatic maze caves......Page 582
   Mineralogy......Page 583
  Bibliography......Page 584
 Chapter 66: Ice in caves......Page 586
  Scientific significance of ice in caves......Page 589
  Bibliography......Page 591
  Geology and morphology of iron formation caves......Page 592
  Genesis of IFCS......Page 593
  Geomicrobiology of IFCS......Page 596
  IFC ecosystem......Page 597
  Bibliography......Page 599
   Stable isotopes and fractionation......Page 600
   Radioisotopes and decay......Page 601
   Isotopes in the atmosphere......Page 602
   Water in the cave......Page 604
   Rock-water interaction......Page 605
   Cave sediments and speleothems......Page 606
   The hypogene isotope story: A saga from the bottom up......Page 607
  Bibliography......Page 608
  Barometric airflow......Page 610
   Loft level......Page 611
   Main level......Page 612
  Recent geological mapping......Page 613
  Hydrology......Page 614
  Origin of Jewel cave......Page 615
   Mass transfer system......Page 616
  Cave life......Page 618
  Other black hills caves......Page 619
  Bibliography......Page 620
  Controls on karren form......Page 621
  Descriptions of features......Page 622
  Karren vs pseudokarren......Page 631
  Bibliography......Page 632
  Basic controls......Page 633
  Description of some karren features......Page 636
  Karren assemblages......Page 640
  Bibliography......Page 641
   Location......Page 642
   History......Page 644
   Closed depressions (dolines, sinkholes)......Page 646
   Poljes......Page 647
   Cones and towers......Page 648
   Alpine karst......Page 649
  Hypogenetic karst......Page 650
  Bibliography......Page 651
   Local visitation......Page 652
   Survey and systematic exploration......Page 653
   Speleogenesis......Page 654
   Extraneous tubes......Page 655
   Multilevel and lavafall development......Page 656
   Primary speleothems......Page 657
  Bibliography......Page 659
  Krubera Cave and other deep caves in the Arabika Massif......Page 660
  The Arabika Massif: Geology......Page 664
  The Arabika Massif: Hydrogeology......Page 665
  Evolution of the deep cave system in Arabika......Page 666
  Bibliography......Page 667
  Definitions......Page 668
  Ecology and composition of lampenflora......Page 669
  Alteration of underground habitat......Page 671
  Control and restriction of lampenflora growth......Page 672
  Bibliography......Page 673
  Geologic setting......Page 675
  Stratigraphy and structure......Page 676
  Regional/local hydrogeology......Page 677
  Mineralogy......Page 678
  Description of the cave......Page 679
  History of exploration......Page 682
  Bibliography......Page 683
  Growth rates, age, and size at maturity......Page 685
   Egg number, egg size, and reproductive effort......Page 687
  Sex ratio at birth......Page 688
   Confounding factors: Phylogenetic effects and body size......Page 689
  Bibliography......Page 690
  Earth and sediment magnetism......Page 691
  Paleomagnetism of clastic cave sediments......Page 693
  Importance of the magnetic record in caves......Page 695
  Bibliography......Page 697
  Use of caves......Page 698
  Human impacts and conservation......Page 699
  Open questions and new tools......Page 700
  Bibliography......Page 701
  Prehistoric explorers and miners......Page 702
  History of Mammoth Cave......Page 703
  Mammoth Cave passage patterns......Page 705
  Biology of Mammoth Cave......Page 708
  Bibliography......Page 710
  Data requirements......Page 711
  Investigating spatial patterns......Page 712
   Including spatial autocorrelation into modeling......Page 714
   Investigating the drivers of biodiversity patterns......Page 716
   Predicting the biodiversity patterns......Page 717
  Bibliography......Page 718
  Caves in Maya cosmology......Page 719
  Caves and community......Page 720
  Cave burial......Page 721
  Cave modifications......Page 722
  Bibliography......Page 723
  Microbial diversity and metabolism......Page 724
   Molecular genetics revolution......Page 725
   Microbial activity from geochemical and experimental data......Page 726
  Microbial diversity of caves......Page 727
  Bibliography......Page 730
  Introduction......Page 732
  Oxides and hydroxides......Page 733
  Halides......Page 735
  Carbonates......Page 737
  Nitrates......Page 738
  Sulfates......Page 739
  Phosphates, arsenates, and vanadates......Page 740
  Why study cave minerals?......Page 741
  Bibliography......Page 742
  Characterization of flow in karst aquifers......Page 743
  Representation of flow in conduits......Page 744
  Response-function and lumped-parameter or reservoir models......Page 745
  Equivalent porous media models......Page 746
   Dual-continuum models......Page 747
  Discussion......Page 748
  Bibliography......Page 749
   Calcium equilibrium......Page 750
  The single fracture......Page 752
  Modeling the evolution of karst aquifers......Page 754
  Bibliography......Page 757
  Taxonomic and biogeographic patterns of cave molluscs......Page 758
   Bivalves......Page 759
   Gastropods......Page 760
  Bibliography......Page 763
  Caves in the southern hills......Page 765
  Caves in Gunung Api......Page 767
  Caves in Gunung Benarat......Page 769
  Caves in Gunung Buda......Page 770
  Bibliography......Page 771
  Symphyla......Page 772
  Diplopoda......Page 773
  Bibliography......Page 777
   Morphological variation......Page 779
   Diversity of habitats, physiological tolerance to abiotic factors, and ecological niches......Page 782
   Interspecific interactions-Predation and competition......Page 783
   Footprints of competitive exclusion, niche separation, and character displacement in Niphargus communities......Page 784
  Bibliography......Page 787
  Land-use factors......Page 789
  Nitrate contamination of springs......Page 791
  Bibliography......Page 792
  Physical setting......Page 794
  Prehistory, history, and speleological history......Page 796
  Origin and enlargement of the caves......Page 797
  Minerals......Page 799
  Biology past and present......Page 800
  Bibliography......Page 801
  History and early exploration......Page 802
  Cave geology......Page 804
  Hydrogeology......Page 806
  Speleogenesis and other research in the cave......Page 809
  Bibliography......Page 811
 Chapter 94: Orthoptera......Page 812
  Bibliography......Page 816
  Importance of absolute chronology-Dating techniques......Page 817
   The early studies-Paleotemperature......Page 818
   The last glacial-Contribution from stalagmites......Page 819
   Tracking insolation and paleomonsoons......Page 820
   Ties between solar variability and climate change......Page 821
   Vegetation and soil dynamics......Page 822
   Timing of climatic changes......Page 823
   Paleotempestology......Page 824
  Bibliography......Page 825
  Introduction......Page 827
   Alluvial and colluvial transport......Page 828
   Raptors......Page 829
   Bats......Page 830
   Large carnivorans......Page 831
   Other vertebrate sites......Page 835
  Importance of fossil vertebrates from caves......Page 837
  Bibliography......Page 838
  The earliest stages......Page 839
   Vertical organization of cave passages......Page 840
   Adjustment of caves to changing conditions......Page 842
  Conclusion......Page 843
  Bibliography......Page 844
   Geologic setting......Page 845
   Other interesting research in the Postojna Cave System......Page 846
  History of exploration......Page 850
  Description of the cave......Page 852
  Bibliography......Page 853
  Threats to subterranean fauna......Page 855
  Intrinsic vulnerability of troglobionts and stygobionts......Page 857
  International legislation to protect subterranean fauna......Page 858
  Conservation assessments of subterranean fauna......Page 859
  Moving forward in the protection of subterranean biodiversity......Page 860
  Bibliography......Page 861
  Why caves matter......Page 863
  Threats to caves......Page 864
  Management strategies......Page 865
  Management tools......Page 866
  Education......Page 867
  Bibliography......Page 868
  Glacier landforms......Page 869
  Sea caves......Page 871
  Tectonic caves......Page 872
  Talus caves......Page 873
  Tectono-talus caves......Page 874
  Anthropogenic pseudokarst......Page 875
   Salt ingestion caves......Page 876
  Additional pseudokarstic features and further considerations......Page 877
  Bibliography......Page 881
  Introduction......Page 883
  Lithology and occurrence......Page 884
  Speleogenesis......Page 888
  Cave morphologies......Page 889
  Cave deposits......Page 891
  Bibliography......Page 892
  Types of cavers......Page 894
  Urban caving, other voids, and not exactly caving......Page 895
  Modern caving equipment......Page 896
  Demographic methodology......Page 897
  Contemporary trends......Page 899
  Factors contributing to the frequency of recreational visitation to specific caves or cave areas......Page 900
  Why is everyone not a caver?......Page 901
  Summary......Page 902
  Bibliography......Page 903
  Troglomorphy in salamanders......Page 904
   Brook salamanders (Eurycea)......Page 906
   Texas cave and spring-dwelling Eurycea......Page 907
   Blepsimolge (sighted salamanders)......Page 908
   Other troglophilic Eurycea......Page 911
   Spring salamanders (Gyrinophilus)......Page 913
   Other salamanders......Page 914
  Bibliography......Page 916
  Saltpeter mining......Page 918
  Saltpeter processing......Page 920
  Bibliography......Page 921
  Groundwater flow velocities......Page 922
  Calculation of discharge and other parameters......Page 924
  Uses and pitfalls of scallop discharge data......Page 925
  Other phenomena......Page 927
  Bibliography......Page 928
   Seepage springs......Page 929
   Epikarst......Page 932
   Hyporheic......Page 933
   Calcrete aquifers......Page 935
   Milieu souterrain superficiel......Page 936
   Soil......Page 937
    Lava tubes......Page 938
  Generalities......Page 939
  Evolutionary and biogeographic connections with other subterranean habitats......Page 940
  Bibliography......Page 941
  The environmental protection of show caves......Page 942
  The development of a show cave......Page 946
  Recommended international guidelines for the development and management of show caves......Page 947
  Bibliography......Page 954
  Hydrogeology......Page 955
  Overview of the cave systems and history of their exploration......Page 956
   The Bärenschacht (``bear´s shaft´´)......Page 958
   The F1 (Innerbergli area)......Page 960
  Genesis and age of the cave systems......Page 961
  Cave minerals......Page 964
  Bibliography......Page 965
  Sinkhole classification......Page 967
  Interactions among man and sinkholes......Page 973
  Bibliography......Page 975
  General characteristics of caves in high-relief areas......Page 976
  Relative chronology......Page 977
   Example of a relative chronology......Page 978
     Cave character and geomorphology......Page 979
   Vertical to subvertical shafts and meandering canyons......Page 981
     Cave character and geomorphology......Page 983
     Cave character and geomorphology......Page 984
     Cave character, geomorphology......Page 985
  Bibliography......Page 986
  Origin of solution caves......Page 988
   Dissected plateaus of southern Indiana and western Kentucky......Page 991
   Appalachian Plateaus......Page 993
   Ridge and Valley Province, Appalachian Mountains......Page 994
   Glaciated plateaus of northeastern and north-central United States......Page 996
  Bibliography......Page 998
  Predation and cannibalism and their effects on phenotypic variation......Page 1000
  Competition and ghost of competition past......Page 1001
  Ambiguous epibionts......Page 1003
  Bibliography......Page 1005
  Introduction......Page 1007
  Basic concept and definition......Page 1008
   Diagenetic environments......Page 1009
   Groundwater systems and regimes......Page 1010
   Chemical mechanisms......Page 1011
   Hydrogeologic and structural controls......Page 1012
   Karstification through rock alteration (ghost-rock karstification)......Page 1014
   Porosity patterns......Page 1015
   Meso-morphology features......Page 1017
   Genetic types......Page 1018
   Distribution and settings......Page 1019
  Bibliography......Page 1020
  From fracture to conduit: Evolution of one-dimensional fracture......Page 1022
  Evolution of conduit networks......Page 1024
  Bibliography......Page 1028
  The chemistry of precipitation and dissolution of calcite......Page 1029
  Precipitation rates from thin water layers......Page 1030
  Precipitation from water films in turbulent flow......Page 1031
  Morphology of regular stalagmites......Page 1033
  A similarity rule of regular stalagmites......Page 1036
  Growth of stalagmites under conditions variable with time......Page 1037
  Bibliography......Page 1038
  Mechanisms for speleothem deposition......Page 1039
  Speleothems created by dripping water......Page 1040
  Speleothems created by flowing water......Page 1043
  Speleothems created by seeping water......Page 1044
  Speleothems created in standing water......Page 1045
  The calcite/aragonite problem......Page 1046
  Speleothems in volcanic caves......Page 1048
  Bibliography......Page 1050
  Biology......Page 1051
   Order Scorpiones (Scorpions)......Page 1052
   Order Amblypygi (Tailless whipscorpions)......Page 1054
   Order Araneae (Spiders)......Page 1055
   Order Palpigradi (micro whipscorpions)......Page 1056
   Order Pseudoscorpiones (Pseudoscorpions)......Page 1057
   Order Acari (Mites and ticks)......Page 1058
   Order Opiliones (Harvestmen)......Page 1061
  Bibliography......Page 1063
   Gravity springs......Page 1064
   Offshore springs......Page 1065
   Overflow, underflow, and distributary springs......Page 1067
   Magnitudes of spring discharges......Page 1068
   Ebb-and-flow springs......Page 1069
   Analysis of spring hydrographs......Page 1070
   Turbidity and chemical variability......Page 1071
  Springs as water supplies......Page 1072
  Bibliography......Page 1073
  Mineralogy and processes of formation......Page 1074
  Stalagmites......Page 1077
  Stalagmites as valuable archives of Earth´s history......Page 1079
  Bibliography......Page 1081
  The Messinian crisis of salinity, a major geological event in the Mediterranean basin......Page 1082
  Main consequences on karst aquifers......Page 1083
  Bibliography......Page 1085
  Diagnostic features of sulfuric acid caves......Page 1086
  Chemical reactions......Page 1087
   Cueva de Villa Luz, Mexico......Page 1088
   Frasassi Cave System, Italy......Page 1090
   Caves of the Guadalupe Mountains, New Mexico......Page 1091
   Caves of the Grand Canyon, Arizona......Page 1093
  Relation of sulfuric acid caves to Mississippi valley-type ore deposits, uranium deposits, hydrocarbons, and reservoir porosity......Page 1094
  Bibliography......Page 1095
  Locating cave entrances......Page 1096
   The survey......Page 1097
   Recording and processing the traverse line......Page 1098
   Random errors, systematic errors, and blunders......Page 1099
   Paper maps......Page 1100
  Bibliography......Page 1102
  Types of tiankengs......Page 1104
  Features of tiankengs......Page 1105
  Distribution of tiankengs......Page 1107
  Bibliography......Page 1108
  River incision and the record in caves......Page 1110
   Water table positions at Mammoth Cave, Kentucky......Page 1112
   Incision pulses on the Cumberland River, Tennessee......Page 1113
  Bibliography......Page 1114
  Regional geology and hydrogeology......Page 1115
  Patterns and meso-morphology of caves......Page 1116
  Speleogenesis......Page 1118
  Bibliography......Page 1121
 Chapter 127: Underwater Caves of the Yucatan Peninsula......Page 1122
  Bibliography......Page 1128
  Principles of U-series dating......Page 1129
  Reporting and assessing U-Th ages......Page 1130
   How much sample material is needed for an age determination?......Page 1131
  Growth dynamics of speleothems......Page 1133
  U-Pb dating of ancient speleothems......Page 1134
  Bibliography......Page 1135
  Vicariance and dispersal-two alternative explanations......Page 1136
  The situation is more complex in caves......Page 1137
  Dispersal......Page 1139
  Vicariance......Page 1140
  Conclusion......Page 1141
  Bibliography......Page 1142
  Speleomorphology of Vjetrenica......Page 1143
  Habitats......Page 1146
  Cultural history......Page 1147
  Exploration of Vjetrenica......Page 1148
  Ecological changes......Page 1149
  Bibliography......Page 1150
  Secondary volcanic rock caves......Page 1151
  Primary volcanic rock caves of large extent (pyroducts)......Page 1152
  Formation of pyroducts......Page 1153
  Internal development......Page 1155
  General types of pyroducts......Page 1157
   Hollow Tumuli, Peripheral Lava Rise Caves, and Drained Lobes......Page 1158
  See Also the Following Articles......Page 1159
  Bibliography......Page 1160
  Introduction......Page 1161
   Geologic framework......Page 1162
   Paleontology......Page 1163
   Hydrology......Page 1164
   Speleogenesis......Page 1165
  Exploration and mapping of Wakulla spring cave......Page 1166
  Bibliography......Page 1168
   The role of CO2 gas in calcite solubility......Page 1169
   The chemical composition of groundwater in limestone terrain......Page 1170
   Saturation state of the aqueous solution......Page 1171
   Environmental factors influencing calcite dissolution......Page 1172
  Precipitation of minerals and the formation of speleothems from cave waters......Page 1174
  Bibliography......Page 1175
  History of water tracing in karst aquifers......Page 1177
  Tracers......Page 1179
  Qualitative tracing using passive detectors......Page 1181
  Quantitative water tracing in karst areas......Page 1184
  Interpretation of water tracing tests......Page 1185
  Bibliography......Page 1187
  Introduction......Page 1189
  Cerknisko jezero/polje......Page 1190
  Planinsko polje......Page 1191
  Pivka intermittent lakes......Page 1193
  Bibliography......Page 1196
  Initial bat mortality and the causative pathogen discovered......Page 1198
  Diagnostics......Page 1199
  Bat species affected by WNS......Page 1201
   Fungal infections and tissue damage......Page 1202
  Characteristics of fungal virulence and pathogenicity......Page 1203
  Management and control......Page 1205
  Bibliography......Page 1206
  History of studies......Page 1208
    Order: Temnocephalida......Page 1209
   Phylum: Annelida (segmented worms)......Page 1210
    Class: Polychaeta......Page 1211
    Subclass: Oligochaeta......Page 1212
    Subclass: Hirudinea (leeches)......Page 1213
   Phylum: Onychophora (velvet worms)......Page 1215
  Bibliography......Page 1216
  Regional setting......Page 1218
  History of exploration......Page 1219
  Description of the cave......Page 1221
  Hydrology......Page 1224
  Bibliography......Page 1225
Index......Page 1226
Back Cover......Page 1260