Illustrated Pediatric Dentistry - Part 1

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Title
Copyright
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Contents
Foreword
 1
	FOREWORD 2
Foreword 2
Preface
Acknowledgements
List of Contributors
Introduction to Pediatric Dentistry
	Satyawan Damle1,2,*
	INTRODUCTION
		Definition
	DENTISTRY ENCOMPASSES DIFFERENSES DIFFERENT ASPECTS
		An Important Aspect of Children Being Treated in a Separate Speciality.
		The Key Role of a Pediatric Dentist is
		Responsibilities of a Pediatric Dentist Include
		Aims and Objectives of Pediatric Dentistry
	HISTORY OF PEDIATRIC DENTISTRY
	PEDIATRIC DENTISTRY PROCEDURES
		Why Is Pediatric Dentistry Important? (Fig. 11)
		Pediatric Dentistry takes into Consideration
		The First Dental Visit
		Outcomes of a First Dental Visit
		Anticipatory Guidance
		Considerations of Child Management in Dentistry
		Concept of Dental Home
		Dental Conditions
		Why Pediatric Dentistry is Better for Children?
	CONCLUSION
	CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
	CONFLICT OF INTEREST
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
	REFERENCES
Emotional Development of a Child
	Raghavendra M. Shetty, Trisha Gadekar and Aditi Pashine
	INTRODUCTION
	EMOTION
		Types of Emotions in Children
		Emotional Development in Children
		Commonly Seen Emotions in Children
			Crying
			Obstinate Cry
			Frightened Cry
			Hurt Cry
			Compensatory Cry
		Anger
		Fear
			Objective Fear/real Fear
			Subjective Fear/anticipated Fear
		Anxiety
		Types of Anxiety
		Phobia
		Fear and Anxiety Assessment Scale
		Corah’s Dental Anxiety Scale (CDAS)
		The Modified Child Dental Anxiety Scale (MCDAS)
		Dental Fear Survey Scale
		Children’s Dental Fear Picture (CDFP) Test
		Venham’s Picture Scale (VPS)/Venham’s Picture Test (VPT)
		DA5 Scale
		Smiley Faces Program (SFP)
		Abeer Children Dental Anxiety Scale (ACDAS).
		Anxiety Thermometer
		RMS-Pictorial Scale (RMS-PS)
		Chhota Bheem Chutki (CBC) Scale
		RMS-Tactile Scale (RMS-TS)
		Animated Emoji Scale (AES)
		Animated Visual Facial Pain/Anxiety Rating Scale
	CONCLUSION
	CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
	CONFLICT OF INTEREST
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
	REFERENCES
Psychological Development of a Child
	H. Sharath Chandra1,*, M.H. Raghunath Reddy1 and Vidya Iyer2
	INTRODUCTION
		Definition
		Importance of Child Psychology
		Theories of Child Psychology
	PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES
		Psychosexual/ Psychoanalytic Theory
			Psychosexual Development
		Psychosocial Theory
		Stages of Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory (Fig. 10)
		Stage 1: Seen in Infant (0- 18 months)
			Dental Implications
			Dental Implications
			Dental Implications
			Dental Implications
			Dental Implications
			Dental Implication
		Cognitive Theory
		Stages of Cognitive Development
			Volume: Classical Beaker Experiment
			Number: Coin Experiment
			Features of the stage
			Clinical Implications
			Formal Operational Stage (12 Yrs and Above)
	BEHAVIOUR LEARNING THEORIES
		Classical Conditioning Theory
		Clinical Implications
			Operant Conditioning Theory
			Skinner Described 4 types of Operant Conditioning [1, 9]
		Social Learning Theory
	HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
	CONCLUSION
	CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
	CONFLICT OF INTEREST
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
	REFERENCES
Non-Pharmacological Behaviour Management
	Raghavendra M. Shetty1,*, Aditi Pashne2 and Trisha Gadekar3
	INTRODUCTION
		Behavioural Classification
			Wright’s Classification (1975)
		Behaviour Rating Scales
		Effect of Dental Office Environment and Parental Presence
		Non-Pharmacological Behaviour Guidance Techniques
		Communication and Communicative Guidance
			Prerequisites for Effective Communication
		Desensitization
		Tell Show Do (TSD) Technique
		Modification of TSD
		Role Play and Drawings
		Flooding Technique or Implosion Therapy
		Contingency Management
		Modelling
		Types of Modelling
		Distraction
		Audio-Visual Distraction
		Protective Stabilisation
		Types of Restraints
		Audio Analgesia
		Hypnosis/ Psychosomatics/ Suggestion Therapy
		Cognitive Restructuring - Reframing
		Newer Methods of Behaviour Guidance
			ATP Technique
			Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA)
			Essential Oil Therapy – Aromatherapy
			Mobile Dental Application
			Virtual Reality-Based Distraction
			WITAUL [Writing in the Air Using Leg] Technique
			Thaumaturgy
			Animal Assisted Therapy (AAT)
			Robotic Approach
			Acupuncture and Acupressure
	CONCLUSION
	CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
	CONFLICT OF INTEREST
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
	REFERENCES
Dental Caries: Etiology, Pathogenesis, and Caries Activity Tests
	Armelia Sari Widyarman1,*, Enrita Dian R.2 and Eko Fibryanto3
	INTRODUCTION
		Etiology
		Pathogenesis
			Dental Plaque and Biofilm
		Demineralization Process
		Caries Activity Tests
		Definitions
		A Caries Activity Test Helps to:
		Objectives
		Uses
			For a Clinician
			For the Research Worker
		Ideal Requirements for Caries Activity Tests (Fig. 5)
	CONCLUSION
	CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
	CONFLICT OF INTEREST
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
	REFERENCES
Diagnosis of Dental Caries
	Armelia Sari Widyarman1,*, Eko Fibryanto2 and Tri Erri Astoeti3
	INTRODUCTION
		Definitions
		Dental Caries Classification
		Dental Caries Classification
			A). Location
			B). Size
		Transmission of Microorganisms from Mother to Child
		Intrafamily Transmission of Microorganisms to Children
		Diagnosis
	CONCLUSION
	CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
	CONFLICT OF INTEREST
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
	REFERENCE
Role of Diet in Dental Caries
	Satyawan Damle1,*, Prachi Goyal2 and Dhanashree Sakhare3
	INTRODUCTION
		Definition
		Cariogenicity of Diet
		Nature of the Diet
		Retention and Oral Clearance Time of Dietary Components
		Intake Frequency
		Chemical Composition
		Protective Component in the Diet (Fig. 6)
		Sugar Studies
		Sucrose – The Arch Criminal
		Studies Assessing Relationship Between Sugar and Caries [9 - 11], Observational Human Studies-
		Modern Diet Versus Primitive Diet
		Human Observational Studies
		Results
	CONCLUSION
		Low Sugar Diet Has Low Levels of Dental Caries
		High Sugar Diet Has High Levels of Dental Caries
		Nikiforuk and Fraser in 1981
		Worldwide Epidemiological Observational Studies, Sreebny Lm 1982
		Tristan Da Cunha, (Fisher 1986)
		Hereditary Fructose Intolerance (Hfi) (Newbrun 1909)
		World War II Rationing
		Interventional Studies
			Vipeholm Study (Gustaffson et al. 1954) (Fig. 12)
	CONCLUSION
	RESULTS
		Sugar Clock (Fig. 16)
		Diet Counseling
	FOOD PYRAMID
		Dietary Advice for Different Age Groups
	CONCLUSION
	CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
	CONFLICT OF INTEREST
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
	REFERENCES
Early Childhood Caries
	Neerja Singh1,* and Monika Rathore1
	INTRODUCTION
		Definitions
		Rampant Caries
		Classification
		Epidemiology
		Etiological Factors
		A. Dietary Factors
		B. Microbiological Factors
		C. Other Modifying Factors
	DIETARY FACTORS
		Breastfeeding
		Bottle Feeding
		The Diet and ECC
		Microbiological Factors
		Host Factors
		Saliva
		Enamel Defects
	GENETIC FACTORS
	OTHER MODIFYING FACTORS
		The Maternal-Child Link to ECC
		Socio Economic Status
		Parental Education and Awareness
		Oral Hygiene Practices
		Low Birth Weight and Preterm Babies
	CLINICAL FEATURES
	CONSEQUENCES OF UNTREATED EARLY CHILDHOOD CARIES
	EFFECTS OF UNTREATED CARIOUS LESIONS ON QUALITY OF LIFE OF THE CHILD
	EFFECTS OF UNTREATED CARIOUS LESIONS ON PARENTS’ QUALITY OF LIFE
	EFFECTS OF UNTREATED CARIOUS LESIONS ON SUCCEDANEOUS TEETH
	MANAGEMENT OF EARLY CHILDHOOD CARIES
	PREVENTION
	SALIVA DIAGNOSTICS
	CARIES RISK ASSESSMENT
	PRIMARY PREVENTION
	NON-FLUORIDE AGENTS
	REPLACEMENT THERAPY AND PROBIOTICS
		Secondary Prevention
		Tertiary Prevention
	CONCLUSION
	CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
	CONFLICT OF INTEREST
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
	REFERENCES
Craniofacial Growth and Development in Children
	Arun M. Xavier1,*, H. Sharath Chandra2 and M. Vijay3
	INTRODUCTION
		Terminologies
			Growth
			Development
		Factors Affecting Growth
		Genes and Heredity
		Family Size and Birth Order
		Secular Trends
		Socioeconomic Factors
		Climate and Seasonal Variations
		Nutrition
		Hormones
		Growth Factors
		Muscular Functions
		Exercise and Adult Physique
		Illness
		Psychological Disturbances
	GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
		Continuity
		Sequentiality
		Generality to Specificity
		Differentiality
		Variability
		Growth Spurts
			Importance of Growth Spurts:
		Orthodontic Correction Considerations
		Differential Growth
		Cranial Base Synchondroses
		Fontanelles
		Theories of Craniofacial Growth
		Other Theories Related to Craniofacial Growth are:
		Bone Remodelling Theory
		Genetic Theory / Genetic Blueprint
		Cartilaginous Theory / Scott's Hypothesis, Nasal Septum Theory, Nasocapsular Theory
		Limitations
		Sutural Growth Theory / Sicher's Hypothesis, Sicher’s Sutural Dominance Theory
		Limitations
		Functional Matrix Hypothesis (FMH)
		Neurotropism
		Neurotropism is of Three Types
		Van Limborgh Multifactorial Hypothesis / Van Limborgh's Composite Hypothesis
		Servo System Theory / Cybernetics Theory
		Application of Servo System
		Enlow's Expanding ‘V’ Principle
		Enlow's Counterpart Principle / Growth Equivalents Concepts
		Functional Matrix Hypothesis Revisited (1997)
		Methods of Studying Physical Growth
		Growth Assessment Parameters
		Chronological Age
		Somatotypic Age
		Sexual Age
		Facial Age
		Skeletal Age
		Hand and Wrist Radiographs
		Determination of Skeletal Age
		Indications of Hand and Wrist Radiographs
		Dental Age
		Computerized Growth Forecasting
	CONCLUSION
	CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
	CONFLICT OF INTEREST
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
	REFERENCES
Growth and Development of Maxilla and Mandible
	Bhavna Gupta Saraf1,*, Dhanashree Sakhare2 and Parag Kasar3
	INTRODUCTION
		Scope
		Prenatal Growth and Development of Maxilla and Mandible-Maxilla
		1. Maxilla Proper
		The Ossified Tissue Appears as a Thin Strip of Bone. It Spreads in Different Directions as:
		2. Premaxilla
	3. ACCESSORY CARTILAGES
	DIVISIONS OF DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE
		Molecular Biology
		Developmental Biology
	PRINCIPLES AND THEMES OF DEVELOPMENT
		Principles
	SHIFTS FROM COMPETENT TO FIXATION
	SHIFTS FROM DEPENDENT TO INDEPENDENT
		The Ubiquity of Genetic Control Modulates by Environment
	MANDIBLE
		Meckel’s Cartilage
		Meckel's Cartilage Ossification (Fig. 6)
	OSSIFICATION OF THE MANDIBLE (TABLE 1).
	ENDOCHONDRAL BONE FORMATION
		A. Condylar Cartilage
		B. Coronoid Cartilage
		C. Symphyseal Cartilage
		Postnatal Growth of Maxilla and Mandible Maxilla
			Growth Centers
		Growth Sites
		Mandible
			Mandibular Growth after 1st Year of Life
			Mandibular Remodeling
			Growth At Ramus
		Lingual Tuberosity
		Body of the Mandible
		Condylar Neck
		Coronoid Process
		Antegonial Notch
		The Mandibular Foramen
		The Alveolar Process
		Mental Foramen
		The Chin
		Recent Advances to Study the Growth and Development of Mandible
		Age Changes in Maxilla and Mandible in mandible (Table 2)
		In Maxilla
			At Birth
		In Adults
		In Old
		Applied Aspects of Development of Maxilla and Mandible (Table 3)
		Reasons
		Recent Updates on Growth and Development
	CONCLUSION
	CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
	CONFLICT OF INTEREST
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
	REFERENCES
Development of Dentition and Occlusion in Children
	Pratik Kariya1,* and Bhavna Dave1
	INTRODUCTION
		Evolution of Dentition
		Characteristics of Human Dentition
		▪ Based on the Mode of Attachment to Jaw:
		▪ Based on the Number of Successional Teeth sets:
		▪ Based on the Type or Shape of Teeth
		Development of Dentition-
		A). Development during Prenatal Period
		During the 5th week of IUL
		1) Beginning of the Primary Dentition Development
		2) The Formation of the Successional Lamina
		3) Initiation of the Permanent Dentition
		Morphological Changes in the Dental Lamina Occur in the Following Phases (Table 1):
		Advanced Bell Stage-
		B). Status of Development at Birth
		C). Development of Postnatal Period
		Hertwig's Epithelial Root Sheath and Root Formation
		Eruption of Teeth
		Two types of Eruption
		Patterns of Eruptive Tooth Movements
		Theories of Tooth Eruption-
		Histology of Tooth Movement
		Factors Affecting Eruption
			1. Genetic Factors
			2. Environment Factors
		Chronology of Primary and Permanent Dentition
		Developmental Anomalies of Teeth
		Development of Occlusion
		Definition
		Periods of Developing Occlusion
		1. Pre-Dentate Period
		a). Gum Pads
		b). Neonatal Jaw Relationship
		c). The Status of Dentition
		2. Deciduous Dentition Period
		Ovoid Arch Form
		Interdental Spacing
		Spacing in Primary Dentition
			Significance of Primate Spaces
		Molar Relationship in Deciduous Dentition
		Upright Incisors
		Shallow Intercuspal Interdigitation (Fig. 14):
		Flat curve of Spee (Fig. 15):
		3. Mixed Dentition Period
		Phases of Mixed Dentition (Table 9):
			First Transition Period:
		First Transition Stage
		Early Mesial Shift
		Late Mesial Shift
		Incisal Exchange
		Incisal Liability
		The Following Factors Overcome the Incisal Liability
		Overjet and Overbite (Fig. 22):
		Edge to Edge Bite
		Inter-Transitional Period
		Second Transition Period-
		Ugly Duckling Stage
	PERMANENT DENTITION
		Features of Permanent Dentition
		Andrew's Keys to Normal Occlusion
		Self-Correcting Anomalies
	CONCLUSION
	CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
	CONFLICT OF INTEREST
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
	REFERENCES
Morphology of Primary Dentition
	Parag D. Kasar1,*, Dhanashree Sakhare2 and Shailaja Chatterjee3
	INTRODUCTION
		Tooth Numbering System
		Maxillary First Molar
		Maxillary Second Molar
		Mandibular Canine
		Mandibular First Molar
		Mandibular Second Molar
	CONCLUSION
	CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
	CONFLICT OF INTEREST
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
	REFERENCES
Teething in Children – Fact and Fiction
	Shruti Balasubramanian1,* and Dhanashree Sakhare2
	INTRODUCTION
		Historical Perspective
		Definitions
		Signs and Symptoms
		Management of Teething [5, 6]
		Practices- Not Recommended [6]
		Problems Associated with Teething
		Their Removal is Indicated
	CONCLUSION
	CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
	CONFLICT OF INTEREST
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
	REFERENCES
Developmental Disturbances of Oral Structure
	Jay Gopal Ray1,*, Deepika Bablani Popli2, Aman Chowdhry3 and Priyanka Bhaje4
	INTRODUCTION
	DISTURBANCES OF TEETH (FIG. 2)
		Anomalies related to number of teeth (Fig. 3)
			Hyperdontia
			Hypodontia (Figs. 5 and 6)
		Abnormalities Related to the Size of Teeth
			Microdontia (Fig. 7)
			Macrodontia (Fig. 8)
		Abnormalities of Tooth Form
			Fusion (Fig. 9)
			Concrescence
			Gemination (Fig. 10)
			Treatment
			Dens in Dente (Dens Invaginatus/tooth within a Tooth/ Invaginatedodontome/ Dilated Gestantodontome/dilated Composite Odontome/ Dentinoid in Dente) (Fig. 11)
			Dens Evaginatus
			Talon Cusp (Fig. 12)
			Taurodontism (Fig. 13)
			Dilaceration (Fig. 15)
		Abnormalities of tooth structure (Fig. 16)
			Enamel Hypoplasia (Figs. 17 and 18)
			Classification
			Amelogenesis Imperfecta (Fig. 21)
			Dentinogenesis imperfecta (Fig. 22)
			Shell Teeth (Fig. 23)
			Dentin Dysplasia (Fig. 24)
			Regional Odontodysplasia
			Syphilitic Hypoplasia (Fig. 25)
		Anomalies of tongue (Fig. 26)
			Macroglossia (Fig. 27)
			Microglossia and Aglossia
			Ankyloglossia (Fig. 28)
			Treatment
			Cleft Tongue
			Fissured tongue (Fig. 29)
			Treatment
			Coated Tongue (Fig. 30)
			Strawberry Tongue (Fig. 31)
			Geographic Tongue (Benign Migratory Glossitis)
			Median Rhomboid Glossitis (Fig. 32)
			Black Hairy Tongue
	DEVELOPMENTAL LESIONS OF ORAL MUCOSA (FIG. 33)
		Fordyce’s Granules
		Focal epithelial hyperplasia or Heck disease (Fig. 34)
		Epstein’s pearls and Bohn’s nodules (Fig. 35)
			Treatment
		Persistent Buccopharyngeal Membrane
			Treatment
		Congenital Pits and Fistulas of the Lip (Fig. 36)
		Treatment
		Cheilitis Granulomatosa
			Treatment
	CONCLUSION
	CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
	CONFLICT OF INTEREST
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
	REFERENCES
Lesions of Oral Mucosa
	Jay Gopal Ray1 and Priyanka Bhaje2,*
	INTRODUCTION
		White lesions of the Oral Cavity (Fig. 2)
			Benign Migratory Glossitis (Geographic Tongue)
			Candidiasis/Moniliasis
			White Spongy Nevus
		Vesicular, Erythematous, and Ulcerated Lesions of Viral Etiology (Fig 6)
			Primary Herpetic Gingivostomatitis (Fig 7)
			Herpangina (Fig 8).
			Pigmented lesions (Fig 9)
			Hereditary Hemorrhagic Telangiectasia (Rendu-Osler-Weber syndrome) (Fig 10)
			Hemangioma (Fig 11)
			Sturge Weber Syndrome (‘Encephalo- Trigeminal Angiomatosis’) (Fig 12)
			Black Hairy Tongue (Fig. 13)
		Autoimmune Disorders (Fig 14)
			Pemphigus/Pemphigoid (Fig 15)
			Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (Fig 16a, 16b)
			Ectodermal Dysplasia (Fig. 17a, 17b, 17c)
			Papillon–Lefèvre Syndrome (PLS) (Fig 18a, 18b)
			Aphthous Stomatitis
		Lesions of Idiopathic Etiology
			Pterygoid Ulcer or Bednar’s Ulcer (Fig. 20)
		Lesions of Bacterial Origin (Fig. 21)
			Impetigo (Fig. 22)
			Staphylococcal Scalded Shock Syndrome
			Scarlet Fever
			Syphilis
			Oral Tuberculosis (Fig 24)
			Actinomycosis (Fig. 25)
			Noma (Cancrum Oris, Gangrenous stomatitis)
		SOFT TISSUE ENLARGEMENTS
			Mucocele (Fig 27)
			Ranula (Fig 28)
		B). Tumors or Neoplasms
			(I). Benign Tumours of Epithelial Origin
			Oral Papilloma (HPV)
		II). Benign Tumours of Mesenchymal Origin
			Pyogenic Granuloma: (Fig 30)
	CONCLUSION
	CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
	CONFLICT OF INTEREST
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
	REFERENCES
Subject Index