Ichnology : organism-substrate interactions in space and time

Cover......Page 1
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Dedication......Page 7
Contents......Page 9
Acknowledgments......Page 13
Introduction......Page 15
Part I Conceptual tools and methods......Page 17
1.1 Basic concepts......Page 19
1.2.1 Trace fossils represent evidence of behavior......Page 22
1.2.2 The same organism may produce more than one ichnotaxon......Page 23
1.2.4 Multiple architects may produce a single structure......Page 24
1.2.5 Producers are commonly soft-bodied animals that are rarely preserved......Page 25
1.2.7 The same biogenic structure may be differentially preserved in various substrates......Page 26
1.2.8 Trace fossils commonly have long stratigraphic ranges......Page 27
1.3.1 Stratinomic classifications......Page 28
Seilacher’s classification......Page 29
1.4 Ethology of trace fossils......Page 31
1.4.1 Resting traces or cubichnia......Page 32
1.4.5 Feeding traces or fodinichnia......Page 34
1.4.7 Traps and farming traces or agrichnia......Page 35
1.4.9 Equilibrium traces or equilibrichnia......Page 36
1.4.10 Predation traces or praedichnia......Page 37
1.4.15 Discussion: complex traces and extended organisms......Page 38
2.1 Approach and philosophy......Page 39
2.2 Some problems and practical guidelines......Page 40
2.3 Ichnotaxobases......Page 41
2.3.2 Wall and lining......Page 42
2.3.3 Branching......Page 43
2.3.4 Fill......Page 44
2.4.1 Compound trace fossils......Page 45
2.4.2 Composite trace fossils......Page 47
2.5 Hierarchies in ichnotaxonomy......Page 48
2.6 Vertebrate ichnotaxonomy......Page 49
2.8 Classification of trace fossils in outcrops and cores......Page 50
3.1.1 Feeding strategy......Page 52
3.1.3 Level of motility......Page 57
3.2 Modes of interaction with the substrate......Page 58
3.3.1 Multiple modes of locomotion: the empiricist approach......Page 60
3.3.2 Burrowing pre-adaptations: the morpho-structural approach......Page 69
3.3.3 In search of a universal mechanism: the rationalist approach......Page 70
3.4 Movement ecology......Page 71
4.1 The ichnofacies concept......Page 72
4.2.1 Psilonichnus ichnofacies......Page 73
4.2.2 Skolithos ichnofacies......Page 74
4.2.3 Cruziana ichnofacies......Page 76
4.2.4 Zoophycos ichnofacies......Page 78
4.2.5 Nereites ichnofacies......Page 79
4.3.1 Glossifungites ichnofacies......Page 81
4.3.2 Trypanites ichnofacies......Page 83
4.3.4 Teredolites ichnofacies......Page 85
4.4.1 Scoyenia ichnofacies......Page 87
4.4.2 Mermia ichnofacies......Page 89
4.4.3 Coprinisphaera ichnofacies......Page 90
4.4.5 Celliforma ichnofacies......Page 91
4.4.6 Octopodichnus–Entradichnus ichnofacies......Page 92
4.5 Vertebrate ichnofacies......Page 93
4.6 Pitfalls and confusions in ichnofacies analysis......Page 94
5.1 Tiering......Page 97
5.2.1 Quantifying bioturbation and illustrating ichnofabrics......Page 98
5.2.2 Taphonomy of ichnofabrics......Page 99
5.3 Types of ichnofabrics......Page 100
5.4 The ichnoguild concept......Page 101
5.5 Paleosol ichnofabrics......Page 104
5.7 Bioturbation-enhanced permeability and reservoir characterization......Page 105
5.8 Critical evaluation: ichnofabrics versus ichnofacies or ichnofabrics and ichnofacies?......Page 110
Part II Spatial trends......Page 111
6.1.1 Hydrodynamic energy......Page 113
6.1.2 Substrate......Page 115
6.1.3 Oxygenation......Page 118
6.1.4 Salinity......Page 121
6.1.5 Sedimentation rate......Page 123
6.1.6 Food supply......Page 124
6.1.7 Bathymetry......Page 125
6.1.9 Climate......Page 127
6.1.10 Water table......Page 129
6.2 Role of taphonomy......Page 130
6.3 Ichnodiversity and ichnodisparity......Page 131
6.5 Resident and colonization ichnofaunas......Page 133
6.6 Ecosystem engineering......Page 134
6.7 Organism–organism interactions......Page 135
6.8 Spatial heterogeneity......Page 137
7.1 Wave-dominated shallow marine......Page 140
7.1.1 Backshore......Page 142
7.1.4 Middle shoreface......Page 145
7.1.5 Lower shoreface......Page 146
7.1.7 Upper offshore......Page 150
7.2 Tide-dominated shallow marine......Page 153
7.2.1 Supratidal marsh and mangroves......Page 155
7.2.2 Mud flat......Page 157
7.2.4 Sand flat......Page 159
7.2.6 Subtidal sandbars and tidal dunes......Page 160
7.3 Mixed tide- and wave-influenced shorelines......Page 161
7.3.1 Wave-dominated tidal flats......Page 162
7.4 Muddy shorelines......Page 164
8.1.1 Wave-dominated estuaries......Page 166
8.1.2 Tide-dominated estuaries......Page 170
8.2.1 Re stricted bays......Page 174
8.2.2 O pen bays......Page 176
8.3 Deltas......Page 177
8.3.1 R iver-dominated deltas......Page 179
8.3.2 Wave-dominated deltas......Page 183
8.3.3 T ide-dominated deltas......Page 188
8.4 Fjords......Page 189
9.1.1 Topographically simple slopes......Page 195
9.2.1 Fine-grained turbidite systems......Page 198
9.2.2 Coarse-grained turbidite systems......Page 206
9.3 Hyperpycnal systems......Page 207
9.4 Basin plains......Page 210
10 Ichnology of continental environments......Page 211
10.2 Rivers......Page 212
10.2.1 Channels......Page 213
10.2.2 Overbank......Page 214
10.3 Lakes......Page 220
10.3.1 Closed lakes......Page 221
10.3.2 Open lakes......Page 223
10.4 Deserts......Page 226
10.5 Paleosols......Page 228
11.1 Carbonate systems......Page 231
11.1.1 Shallow-marine tropical carbonates......Page 232
11.1.2 Reefs......Page 236
11.1.3 Shelf and deep-sea chalk......Page 237
11.2 Rocky shorelines......Page 238
11.3 Volcanic terranes......Page 240
Part III A matter of time......Page 243
12.1 Recognition of discontinuity surfaces......Page 245
12.2.1 Regressive surfaces of marine erosion......Page 247
12.2.3 Transgressive surfaces of erosion......Page 249
12.2.4 Co-planar surfaces of lowstand erosion and transgressive erosion......Page 252
12.3 Non-erosional discontinuities......Page 255
12.4.3 Deltaic parasequences......Page 256
12.5.2 Retrogradational patterns......Page 257
12.6 Carbonate sequence stratigraphy......Page 258
Overfilled lakes......Page 259
Balanced-fill lakes......Page 261
Underfilled lakes......Page 262
12.7.2 Alluvial plains......Page 264
12.8 Evaluation of the models......Page 265
13.1 The Proterozoic–Cambrian boundary......Page 266
13.2 Cruziana stratigraphy......Page 268
13.3 Arthrophycid stratigraphy......Page 273
13.4 Other invertebrate ichnotaxa......Page 274
13.5 Tetrapod trackways......Page 275
14.1.1 The early record of complex life......Page 279
14.1.2 Ediacaran ecosystems......Page 280
14.1.3 The Cambrian explosion......Page 283
14.1.4 The Ordovician radiation......Page 287
14.1.6 Mass extinctions......Page 288
14.2.1 Colonization of shallow-marine environments......Page 291
14.2.2 Colonization of the deep sea......Page 293
14.2.3 Colonization of hard substrates......Page 295
14.2.4 Colonization of tidal flats......Page 296
14.2.5 Colonization of brackish-water environments......Page 297
14.2.6 Colonization of freshwater and terrestrial environments......Page 300
14.2.7 Arthropod–plant interactions through the Phanerozoic......Page 305
15.1.3 The Middle Pleistocene record......Page 306
15.1.5 The Holocene record......Page 307
15.2.1 Biogenic structures in natural and artificial substrates......Page 308
15.2.2 Ichnological hierophanies......Page 309
References......Page 311
Index......Page 361