Ice in the Ocean

Cover......Page 1
Half Title......Page 4
Title Page......Page 6
Copyright Page......Page 7
Dedication......Page 8
Table of Contents......Page 10
PREFACE......Page 14
1: THE FROZEN OCEANS......Page 16
  1.2.1. The topography......Page 17
  1.2.2. The water masses......Page 20
  1.2.3. The current systems......Page 24
  1.2.4. Water mass transformations......Page 32
  1.3.1. The Arctic......Page 37
  1.3.2. The Antarctic......Page 39
  1.3.3. Icebergs......Page 45
 1.4. Mapping the frozen oceans......Page 46
 1.5. Sea ice and the history of exploration......Page 49
 2.1. The structure of the ice crystal......Page 52
 2.2. The density and freezing point of sea water......Page 54
  2.3.1. Ice formation in calm water......Page 55
  2.3.2. Ice formation in rough water: The frazil-pancake cycle......Page 56
  2.4.1. Crystal fabric......Page 61
  2.4.3. Brine cell migration and drainage......Page 64
  2.4.4. Solid salts in ice......Page 68
 2.5. Snow loading and meteoric ice formation......Page 69
 2.6. Summer melt processes......Page 71
 2.7. Multi-year ice......Page 72
 2.8. Formation of leads and pressure ridges......Page 79
  2.9.1. Grounded landfast ice......Page 84
  2.9.2. Ice scour......Page 87
 2.10. Polynyas and their role......Page 88
 3.1. Thermophysical properties of sea ice......Page 96
  3.1.1. Thermal conductivity......Page 97
  3.1.3. Latent heat of fusion......Page 99
  3.1.4. Radiation extinction coefficient......Page 101
 3.2. Early models of ice growth and decay......Page 103
  3.3.1. Formulation......Page 107
  3.3.2. Input parameters......Page 114
  3.3.3. Results......Page 115
4: ICE IN MOTION......Page 124
  4.1.1. Air stress......Page 125
  4.1.2. Water stress......Page 127
  4.1.3. Coriolis force......Page 129
  4.1.5. Sea surface tilt......Page 130
  4.2.1. Inertial motion......Page 131
  4.2.2. Free drift in response to geostrophic wind......Page 133
  4.3.1. Ice rheology......Page 137
  4.3.2. Sea ice models......Page 140
 4.4. Dynamics and thermodynamics of coastal polynyas......Page 142
  4.5.1. Tidal amplitudes and currents......Page 148
  4.5.2. Effect of sea ice on tides......Page 149
  4.5.3. Effect of tides on sea ice......Page 150
5: PRESSURE RIDGES AND THE ICE THICKNESS DISTRIBUTION......Page 154
  5.1.1. Importance of the ice thickness distribution......Page 155
  5.1.2. Ice thickness distribution — Definitions......Page 156
  5.1.3. Ice thickness distribution — Typical shapes......Page 158
  5.1.4. The distribution of morphological features......Page 160
  5.1.5. Pressure ridge depths......Page 161
  5.1.6. Pressure ridge spacings......Page 162
  5.1.7. Pressure ridge slopes and widths......Page 166
  5.1.8. Lead widths and spacings......Page 167
  5.1.9. Fractal properties of ice surfaces......Page 169
  5.1.10. Summary......Page 171
  5.2.1. Current techniques......Page 173
  5.2.2. Possible future techniques......Page 182
  5.3.1. Mean ice thickness in the Arctic......Page 185
  5.3.2. Mean ice thickness in the Antarctic......Page 192
  5.3.3. The differences between Arctic and Antarctic sea ice......Page 197
  5.4.1. Sound propagation......Page 198
  5.4.2. Microwave signatures......Page 199
  5.4.4. The under-ice drag coefficient......Page 200
  5.4.5. Differential melt rates......Page 201
  5.4.6. Ice scour rates and pipeline burial depths......Page 202
6: THE MARGINAL ICE ZONE......Page 208
 6.1. The structure of the ice margin......Page 209
  6.2.1. Greenland Sea......Page 213
  6.2.2. Labrador Sea......Page 215
  6.2.4. Antarctic Ocean......Page 216
  6.3.1. A review of observations......Page 217
  6.3.2. Models of wave attenuation......Page 218
  6.3.3. Wave decay and floe break-up......Page 230
 6.4. Ice edge bands......Page 234
 6.5. Eddies and meanders......Page 243
  6.5.1. Some eddy observations......Page 244
 6.6. Ambient noise at the ice edge......Page 249
 6.7. The Odden ice tongue and Greenland Sea convection......Page 251
7: ICEBERGS......Page 254
 7.1. Mode of formation......Page 255
  7.2.1. Sizes......Page 259
  7.2.2. Shapes......Page 260
  7.2.3. Geographical distribution......Page 264
 7.3. Glaciological properties......Page 266
  7.4.1. Iceberg motion......Page 268
  7.4.2. Patterns of iceberg drift......Page 269
  7.5.1. Erosion and melt......Page 273
  7.5.2. Breakup by flexure......Page 276
 7.6. Iceberg scour......Page 280
 7.7. Climatic role of icebergs......Page 281
 7.8. Icebergs as a fresh water source......Page 282
8: SEA ICE, CLIMATE AND THE ENVIRONMENT......Page 288
 8.1. Sea ice and biology......Page 289
  8.2.1. Oil spills and blowouts......Page 292
  8.2.2. The transport of pollutants by sea ice......Page 296
  8.3.1. Climate change and the polar regions......Page 299
  8.3.2. Climate change and sea ice extent......Page 302
  8.3.3. Climate change and fast ice thickness......Page 306
  8.3.4. Climate change and moving pack ice thickness......Page 307
  8.3.5. Recent changes in the Arctic Ocean......Page 309
 8.4. The future course of research on sea ice......Page 313
FURTHER READING......Page 316
REFERENCES......Page 320
INDEX......Page 350