Hydroprocessing for clean energy : design, operation and optimization

Content: PREFACE xiii PART 1 FUNDAMENTALS 1 1 Overview of This Book 3 1.1 Energy Sustainability, 3 1.2 ULSD - Important Part of the Energy Mix, 4 1.3 Technical Challenges for Making ULSD, 7 1.4 What is the Book Written for, 8 References, 8 2 Refinery Feeds, Products, and Processes 9 2.1 Introduction, 9 2.2 ASTM Standard for Crude Characterization, 10 2.3 Important Terminologies in Crude Characterization, 12 2.4 Refining Processes, 13 2.5 Products and Properties, 15 2.6 Biofuel, 20 3 Diesel Hydrotreating Process 23 3.1 Why Diesel Hydrotreating?, 23 3.2 Basic Process Flowsheeting, 25 3.3 Feeds, 28 3.4 Products, 30 3.5 Reaction Mechanisms, 36 3.6 Hydrotreating Catalysts, 40 3.7 Key Process Conditions, 44 3.8 Different Types of Process Designs, 47 References, 48 4 Description of Hydrocracking Process 51 4.1 Why Hydrocracking, 51 4.2 Basic Processing Blocks, 53 4.3 Feeds, 58 4.4 Products, 59 4.5 Reaction Mechanism and Catalysts, 61 4.6 Catalysts, 67 4.7 Key Process Conditions, 70 4.8 Typical Process Designs, 75 References, 78 PART 2 HYDROPROCESSING DESIGN 79 5 Process Design Considerations 81 5.1 Introduction, 81 5.2 Reactor Design, 81 5.3 Recycle Gas Purity, 98 5.4 Wash Water, 102 5.5 Separator Design, 107 5.6 Makeup Gas Compression, 115 References, 121 6 Distillate Hydrotreating Unit Design 123 6.1 Introduction, 123 6.2 Number of Separators, 123 6.3 Stripper Design, 127 6.4 Debutanizer Design, 135 6.5 Integrated Design, 136 References, 147 7 Hydrocracking Unit Design 149 7.1 Introduction, 149 7.2 Single-stage Hydrocracking Reactor Section, 150 7.3 Two-stage Hydrocracking Reactor Section, 155 7.4 Use of a Hot Separator in Hydrocracking Unit Design, 158 7.5 Use of Flash Drums, 160 7.6 Hydrocracking Unit Fractionation Section Design, 161 7.7 Fractionator First Flow Scheme, 161 7.8 Debutanizer First Flow Scheme, 163 7.9 Stripper First Fractionation Flow Scheme, 166 7.10 Dual Zone Stripper Fractionation Flow Scheme, 168 7.11 Dual Zone Stripper - Dual Fractionator Flow Scheme, 170 7.12 Hot Separator Operating Temperature, 171 7.13 Hydrogen Recovery, 174 7.14 LPG Recovery, 175 7.15 HPNA Rejection, 177 7.16 Hydrocracking Unit Integrated Design, 181 References, 187 PART 3 ENERGY AND PROCESS INTEGRATION 189 8 Heat Integration for Better Energy Efficiency 191 8.1 Introduction, 191 8.2 Energy Targeting, 191 8.3 Grassroots Heat Exchanger Network (Hen) Design, 202 8.4 Network Pinch for Energy Retrofit, 206 Nomenclature, 213 References, 213 9 Process Integration for Low-Cost Design 215 9.1 Introduction, 215 9.2 Definition of Process Integration, 216 9.3 Grand Composite Curves (GCC), 218 9.4 Appropriate Placement Principle for Process Changes, 219 9.5 Dividing Wall Distillation Column, 225 9.6 Systematic Approach for Process Integration, 228 9.7 Applications of the Process Integration Methodology, 230 9.8 Summary of Potential Energy Efficiency Improvements, 246 References, 247 10 Distillation Column Operating Window 249 10.1 Introduction, 249 10.2 What is Distillation?, 249 10.3 Why Distillation is the Most Widely Used?, 251 10.4 Distillation Efficiency, 253 10.5 Definition of Feasible Operating Window, 255 10.6 Understanding Operating Window, 256 10.7 Typical Capacity Limits, 275 10.8 Effects of Design Parameters, 275 10.9 Design Checklist, 278 10.10 Example Calculations for Developing Operating Window, 281 10.11 Concluding Remarks, 296 Nomenclature, 297 References, 299 PART 4 PROCESS EQUIPMENT ASSESSMENT 301 11 Fired Heater Assessment 303 11.1 Introduction, 303 11.2 Fired Heater Design for High Reliability, 304 11.3 Fired Heater Operation for High Reliability, 310 11.4 Efficient Fired Heater Operation, 315 11.5 Fired Heater Revamp, 321 Nomenclature, 322 References, 322 12 Pump Assessment 323 12.1 Introduction, 323 12.2 Understanding Pump Head, 324 12.3 Define Pump Head - Bernoulli Equation, 325 12.4 Calculate Pump Head, 329 12.5 Total Head Calculation Examples, 330 12.6 Pump System Characteristics - System Curve, 332 12.7 Pump Characteristics - Pump Curve, 333 12.8 Best Efficiency Point (Bep), 338 12.9 Pump Curves for Different Pump Arrangement, 338 12.10 NPSH, 340 12.11 Spillback, 345 12.12 Reliability Operating Envelope (ROE), 346 12.13 Pump Control, 347 12.14 Pump Selection and Sizing, 347 Nomenclature, 351 References, 351 13 Compressor Assessment 353 13.1 Introduction, 353 13.2 Types of Compressors, 354 13.3 Impeller Configurations, 357 13.4 Type of Blades, 358 13.5 How a Compressor Works, 358 13.6 Fundamentals of Centrifugal Compressors, 360 13.7 Performance Curves, 362 13.8 Partial Load Control, 364 13.9 Inlet Throttle Valve, 366 13.10 Process Context for a Centrifugal Compressor, 367 13.11 Compressor Selection, 368 Nomenclature, 369 References, 369 14 Heat Exchanger Assessment 371 14.1 Introduction, 371 14.2 Basic Concepts and Calculations, 371 14.3 Understand Performance Criterion - U Values, 374 14.4 Understand Fouling, 380 14.5 Understand Pressure Drop, 382 14.6 Effects of Velocity on Heat Transfer, Pressure Drop, and Fouling, 384 14.7 Heat Exchanger Rating Assessment, 385 14.8 Improving Heat Exchanger Performance, 396 Nomenclature, 399 References, 400 15 Distillation Column Assessment 401 15.1 Introduction, 401 15.2 Define a Base Case, 401 15.3 Calculations for Missing and Incomplete Data, 403 15.4 Building Process Simulation, 406 15.5 Heat and Material Balance Assessment, 408 15.6 Tower Efficiency Assessment, 411 15.7 Operating Profile Assessment, 414 15.8 Tower Rating Assessment, 417 15.9 Guidelines, 419 Nomenclature, 420 References, 420 PART 5 PROCESS SYSTEM EVALUATION 423 16 Energy Benchmarking 425 16.1 Introduction, 425 16.2 Definition of Energy Intensity for a Process, 426 16.3 The Concept of Fuel Equivalent for Steam and Power (FE), 427 16.4 Data Extraction, 429 16.5 Convert All Energy Usage to Fuel Equivalent, 432 16.6 Energy Balance, 432 16.7 Fuel Equivalent for Steam and Power, 435 16.8 Energy Performance Index (EPI) Method for Energy Benchmarking, 441 16.9 Concluding Remarks, 444 16.10 Nomenclature, 445 References, 446 17 Key Indicators and Targets 447 17.1 Introduction, 447 17.2 Key Indicators Represent Operation Opportunities, 448 17.3 Define Key Indicators, 451 17.4 Set Up Targets for Key Indicators, 456 17.5 Economic Evaluation for Key Indicators, 460 17.6 Application 1: Implementing Key Indicators into an \"Energy Dashboard\", 463 17.7 Application 2: Implementing Key Indicators to Controllers, 465 17.8 It is Worth the Effort, 466 Nomenclature, 467 References, 467 18 Distillation System Optimization 469 18.1 Introduction, 469 18.2 Tower Optimization Basics, 470 18.3 Energy Optimization for Distillation System, 475 18.4 Overall Process Optimization, 481 18.5 Concluding Remarks, 489 References, 490 PART 6 OPERATIONAL GUIDELINES AND TROUBLESHOOTING 491 19 Common Operating Issues 493 19.1 Introduction, 493 19.2 Catalyst Activation Problems, 494 19.3 Feedstock Variations and Contaminants, 495 19.4 Operation Upsets, 496 19.5 Treating/Cracking Catalyst Deactivation Imbalance, 497 19.6 Flow Maldistribution, 500 19.7 Temperature Excursion, 501 19.8 Reactor Pressure Drop, 504 19.9 Corrosion, 506 19.10 HPNA, 509 19.11 Conclusion, 511 20 Troubleshooting Case Analysis 513 20.1 Introduction, 513 20.2 Case Study I - Product Selectivity Changes, 514 20.3 Case Study II - Feedstock Changes, 516 20.4 Case Study III - Catalyst Deactivation Balance, 523 20.5 Case Study IV - Catalyst Migration, 526 20.6 Conclusion, 536 INDEX 537