Hydrology and Hydraulic Systems

Title Page
......Page 2
Contents......Page 4
Preface......Page 14
1.1 Development of Water Resources......Page 16
1.2 Assessment of Demand......Page 17
1.4 Municipal Requirements......Page 18
1.5 Population Forecasting......Page 19
1.6.2 Arithmetic Growth Method......Page 20
1.6.3 Geometric Growth Method......Page 21
1.6.4 Declining Growth Rate Method......Page 22
1.7.2 Mathematical Logistic Curve Method......Page 23
1.7.3 Ratio and Correlation Methods......Page 25
1.7.4 Component Methods......Page 26
1.8 Per Capita Water Usage......Page 27
1.8.1 Average Daily per Capita Usage for Water Supply......Page 28
1.8.2 Variations in Usage......Page 29
1.9 Fire Demands......Page 30
1.9.3 Fire Flow Requirements and Duration......Page 31
1.11 Waste Dilution Requirements......Page 34
1.13.2 Modified Blaney-Criddle Method......Page 37
1.14 Effective Rainfall......Page 38
1.16 Conveyance Losses and Waste......Page 40
1.17 Computation of Irrigation Demands......Page 42
1.18.1 Power and Energy Production from Available Streamflows......Page 45
1.19 Demand for Navigation......Page 48
2.2 Hydrologic Cycle......Page 54
2.3.1 Balance Equation for Water Bodies for Short Duration......Page 55
2.3.2 Balance Equation for Large River Basins for Long Duration......Page 56
2.3.4 Water Balance Equation for Direct Runoff within a Basin for Longer than Storm Duration......Page 57
2.4 Discrepancy Term in the Water Balance Equation......Page 60
2.5 Precipitation......Page 61
2.6 Analysis of Point Precipitation Data......Page 62
2.6.2 Checking Consistency of Data: Double-Mass Analysis......Page 63
2.7 Conversion of Point Precipitation to Areal Precipitation......Page 66
2.7.3 Isohyetal Method......Page 67
2.8 Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) Analysis of Point Precipitation......Page 69
2.9 Depth-Area-Duration (DAD) Analysis of a Storm......Page 73
3.2 Evaporation from Free-Water Bodies......Page 80
3.3 Evaporation Using Pans......Page 81
3.4 Evaporation by the Aerodynamic Method......Page 82
3.5 Evaporation by the Energy Balance Method......Page 85
3.6 Combination Method of Penman......Page 89
3.7 Evapotranspiration from a Drainage Basin......Page 91
3.9 Penman-Monteith Method......Page 92
3.9.1 Reference Crop Evapotranspiration by the Penman-Monteith Method......Page 93
3.9.2 Actual Evapotranspiration from Any Surface......Page 95
3.10 Blaney-Criddle Method......Page 100
4.1 Direct Runoff from Rainfall or Rain Excess......Page 108
4.2 Infiltration Capacity Curve Approach......Page 110
4.2.1 Horton Model......Page 111
4.2.2 Holton Model......Page 115
4.2.3 Approximate Infiltration Model of Green-Ampt......Page 117
4.2.4 Determination of Parameters in the Green-Ampt Model......Page 119
4.3 HEC’s Nonlinear Loss-Rate Function Approach for Direct Runoff......Page 125
4.4 The NRCS Approach for Direct Runoff......Page 126
4.5 Infiltration-Index Approach for Direct Runoff......Page 131
4.6 Direct Runoff from Snowmelt......Page 134
4.6.2 Temperature Index or Degree-Day Method......Page 135
4.6.3 Generalized Equation of the Corps of Engineers......Page 136
5.2 Classification of Subsurface Water......Page 142
5.3 Water-Bearing Formations......Page 144
5.4 Fluid Potential and Hydraulic Head......Page 146
5.5 Basic Equation of Groundwater Flow: Darcy’s Law......Page 147
5.5.1 Darcy Velocity and Seepage Velocity......Page 148
5.6.1 Hydraulic Conductivity......Page 151
5.6.2 Variation of Hydraulic Conductivity......Page 154
5.6.3 Transmissivity......Page 156
5.6.4 Leakance, Retardation Coefficient, and Leakage Factor (for Leaky Aquifer)......Page 157
5.7.1 Specific Retention (of Water-Table Aquifer)......Page 158
5.7.2 Specific Yield (of Water-Table Aquifer)......Page 161
5.7.3 Specific Storage for Confined Aquifers......Page 164
5.7.4 Storage Coefficient or Storativity......Page 165
5.8 Generalization of Darcy’s Law......Page 166
5.8.1 Velocity Potential......Page 167
5.9 Validity of Darcy’s Law......Page 169
5.11 General Equation of Groundwater Flow......Page 170
5.11.1 Equation for Confined Aquifers......Page 171
5.11.2 Equation for Unconfined Aquifers......Page 174
5.12 An Overview of the Groundwater Flow Equation......Page 175
5.13 Unsaturated Flow and Two-Phase Flow......Page 176
6.1.1 Groundwater Flow between Two Water Bodies......Page 182
6.1.2 Steady-State Confined Flow to a Well......Page 185
6.1.3 Steady-State Unconfined Flow to a Well......Page 189
6.1.4 Groundwater Travel Time......Page 192
6.2.1 Unsteady Flow to a Well: Theis Equation......Page 193
6.2.2 Aquifer-Test Analysis......Page 195
6.3.1 Theis or Type-Curve Method......Page 196
6.4 Unsteady-State Analysis of Confined Aquifers: Cooper- Jacob Method......Page 202
6.4.1 Drawdown-Time Analysis......Page 203
6.4.3 Measurements in Many Wells at Various Times for Either Drawdown-Time or Drawdown-Distance Analysis......Page 204
6.5 Unsteady-State Analysis of Unconfined Aquifers......Page 207
6.6 Semiconfined Aquifers: The Theory of Leaky Aquifers......Page 211
6.6.1 Steady-State Flow in Leaky Aquifers......Page 213
6.6.2 Unsteady-State Flow in Leaky Aquifers......Page 215
6.7.1 Well Near a Stream......Page 217
6.7.2 Well Near an Impermeable Boundary......Page 220
6.8.1 Well Losses......Page 222
6.8.2 Step-Drawdown Test: Bierschenk Solution......Page 223
6.8.4 Specific Capacity......Page 224
6.9 Well Field Design......Page 226
7.1.1 Advective Transport......Page 236
7.1.2 Diffusive Transport: Fick’s First Law of Diffusion......Page 238
7.1.3 Dispersive Transport......Page 239
7.2 Mass Transport Equations......Page 240
7.2.1 Fick’s Second Law of Diffusion......Page 241
7.3 Solutions of the Mass Transport Equation......Page 242
7.3.1 Instantaneous Release from a Plane Source in an Infinite System......Page 243
7.3.2 Instantaneous Release from a Plane Source in a Semi-Infinite System......Page 246
7.3.3 Continuous Release from a Plane Source in an Infinite System......Page 247
7.4 Fate of Contaminants......Page 250
7.5 Aqueous Phase or Soluble Contaminants......Page 251
7.5.1 Uncertainties of Dispersion Coefficients for Porous Media......Page 252
7.6 Immiscible or Nonaqueous Phase Liquids (NAPL)......Page 254
7.6.1 Two-Phase Flow through a Porous Medium......Page 255
7.6.2 Transport of NAPL......Page 257
7.7.1 Freshwater and Saltwater Interface......Page 259
7.7.2 Upconing of Saline Water......Page 260
7.8.1 Statistical Evaluation of Groundwater Monitoring Data......Page 262
7.8.2 Statistical Measures of Sample Data......Page 263
7.9 Checking Data Fitness for Statistical Procedures......Page 265
7.10.1 Probability Plot and the Shapiro-Wilk Test......Page 266
7.11 Testing for Statistical Independence......Page 269
7.12 Checking for Equality of Variances across Well Groups......Page 271
7.14 Strategies for Procedure Selection......Page 272
7.15.1 Computing Tolerance Intervals......Page 274
7.16 Prediction Interval Technique......Page 275
7.16.1 Computing Prediction Intervals......Page 276
7.17.1 The Combined Shewart-Cusum Control Chart Procedure......Page 277
7.18.1 Confidence Interval Containing Mean of Compliance Data......Page 279
7.18.2 Confidence Interval Containing 95th Percentile of Compliance Data......Page 280
7.19 Non-Parametric Intervals......Page 282
8.1 Determination of Streamflow......Page 288
8.3.1 Stilling Well with Float Sensor......Page 289
8.3.3 Radar Stage Measurement......Page 290
8.4 Discharge Measurement......Page 291
8.4.1 Methods of Discharge Measurement......Page 292
8.5.1 Procedures of Current Meter Measurement......Page 293
8.6 Velocity Distribution in a Stream Section......Page 295
8.7 Mean Vertical Velocity......Page 296
8.8 Measurement of Velocity by Current Meter......Page 297
8.9 Measurement of Depth (Sounding) for Current Meter Method......Page 302
8.11 Wet-Line Correction for Depth for Sounding Reel Line......Page 303
8.12 Computation of Discharge for Current Meter Method......Page 306
8.12.1 Midsection Method......Page 307
8.12.2 Mean-Section Method......Page 308
8.12.3 Velocity-Depth Integration Method......Page 310
8.12.4 Velocity-Contour Method......Page 313
8.13 Discharge Measurement by Hydroacoustic System......Page 314
8.13.1 Procedure for ADCP Measurements......Page 315
8.14 Basic Concepts of the ADCP......Page 316
8.15 Discharge Measurement by Ultrasonic (Acoustic) Velocity Meter (UVM)......Page 319
8.16 Discharge Measurement by the Electromagnetic Method......Page 320
8.18 Discharge Rating......Page 321
8.19.1 Logarithmic Rating Curve......Page 322
8.20.2 Arithmetic Procedure......Page 324
8.21.1 Graphic Procedure to Determine Rating Equation......Page 327
8.21.2 Linear Regression Analysis to Determine Rating Equation......Page 328
8.22 Slope-Stage-Discharge Relation......Page 331
8.24.1 Channel-Bank Survey......Page 333
8.24.2 Bathymetry Survey......Page 335
8.24.5 Stage and Cross-Sectional Area Relation......Page 337
8.25.1 Collection of Discharge Measurements......Page 338
8.26 Discharge from Stage and Index-Velocity Data......Page 340
8.28 Dissemination of Streamflow Information......Page 341
9.1 Runoff and Streamflow......Page 352
9.2 Mechanism of Runoff Generation......Page 353
9.3.3 Correlation with Hydrological Data at another Site......Page 356
9.4 Hydrological Processes in Streamflow Estimation......Page 357
9.5 Hydrograph Analysis for Estimation of Streamflow......Page 358
9.7.1 Separation by Recession Curve Approach......Page 360
9.7.2 Separation by Arbitrary Approach......Page 362
9.8.2 Unit Hydrograph......Page 365
9.8.3 Distribution Graph......Page 367
9.9.1 Derivation by the Inverse Procedure......Page 368
9.9.2 Derivation by the IUH Technique......Page 369
9.10.1 Lagging Method......Page 375
9.10.2 S-Curve Method......Page 376
9.11 Formulation of Synthetic Unit Hydrograph......Page 377
9.11.1 Snyder’s Method......Page 378
9.11.2 Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) Method......Page 382
9.12 Estimation of Streamflow from Unit Hydrograph......Page 385
10.3 Precipitation-Runoff Correlation for Estimation of Streamflow......Page 394
10.3.1 Rank Analysis for Antecedent Precipitation Index (API)......Page 395
10.3.2 Correlation of Antecedent Precipitation Index and Runoff by Regression Analysis......Page 398
10.4 Correlation of Gaging-Station Records for Estimation of Streamflow......Page 401
10.4.1 Simple Correlation......Page 402
10.5 Correlation of Duration Curves for Estimation of Streamflow......Page 404
10.6 Synthetic Techniques......Page 405
10.7 Hydrologic Time Series and Stochastic Process......Page 406
10.8 Markov Process or Autoregressive (AR) Model......Page 407
10.8.1 Statistical Parameters of Historical Data......Page 408
10.8.2 Identifying the Distribution of Streamflow Data......Page 409
10.8.3 Generating Random Numbers......Page 411
10.8.4 Deterministic and Random Components......Page 412
10.8.5 Formulating the Markov Model......Page 413
10.9 Autoregressive-Moving Average (ARMA) Model......Page 414
10.10 Disaggregation Model......Page 417
10.11 Autorun Model......Page 418
10.13 Estimation Based on Drainage Area Ratio......Page 420
10.14 Estimation Based on Regression Equations......Page 423
10.15 The Hydraulic Geometry of Stream Channels......Page 424
10.16.2 Flow-Duration Curve......Page 427
11.2 The Concept of Probability in Hydrology......Page 438
11.3 Design Flood for Hydraulic Structures......Page 441
11.3.1 Risk Basis for Design Flood......Page 442
11.3.2 Economic Basis for Design Flood......Page 444
11.5 Type and Quality of Data......Page 445
11.5.2 Homogeneity of Data......Page 446
11.5.4 Adequacy of Data......Page 449
11.7 Graphical Method......Page 450
11.8 Empirical Method......Page 451
11.9.2 Lognormal Distribution......Page 453
11.9.3 Extreme Value Distribution......Page 454
11.10 Approach to Analytical Method......Page 456
11.11 Generalized Skew Coefficient......Page 457
11.12 Confidence Limits and Probability Adjustments......Page 463
11.13.1 Combined-Population (Composite) Frequency Analysis......Page 465
11.13.2 Frequency Analysis of Partial-Duration Series......Page 466
11.13.4 Regional Frequency Analysis......Page 468
11.15 Estimation of PMP......Page 469
11.16.2 Temporal Distribution......Page 473
11.16.3 Spatial Distribution......Page 474
11.17.1 Transformation of Design Storm to Flood Flow Hydrograph......Page 476
11.18 Peak Snowmelt Discharge......Page 477
11.19 Regionalized Flood Relations for Ungaged Sites......Page 478
11.20.1 Myers-Jarvis Enveloping Curves......Page 479
11.22 Computation of Low Flow......Page 481
11.24 Low-Flow Frequency Analysis by Analytical Method......Page 482
12.2 The Continuity Equation......Page 492
12.3 The Energy Equation......Page 493
12.4 The Momentum Equation......Page 495
12.5 Applications of the Hydrodynamic Principles......Page 498
12.6 Kinematic Wave Theory......Page 499
12.6.1 Methods of Solving the Kinematic Equations......Page 500
12.7 Formulation of Hydrograph by the Kinematic Theory......Page 501
12.7.1 Solution for Rising Hydrograph......Page 503
12.7.2 Time of Concentration......Page 504
12.7.3 Receding Hydrograph......Page 505
12.8 Routing Process......Page 506
12.10 Streamflow Routing by the Kinematic Theory......Page 508
12.11 Muskingum-Cunge Kinematic Routing Method......Page 509
12.13 Hydrologic Routing......Page 512
12.14 Streamflow Routing by the Hydrologic Method: Muskingum Method......Page 513
12.14.1 Determination of Routing Constants......Page 514
12.14.2 Application of the Muskingum Method......Page 516
12.15 Reservoir Routing by the Hydrologic Method: The Puls Method......Page 518
12.16 Hydraulic Transients......Page 520
13.3 Orifices and Mouthpieces......Page 528
13.3.1 Flow through a Small Orifice......Page 529
13.3.2 Flow through a Large Orifice......Page 530
13.3.3 Mouthpieces......Page 531
13.3.4 Time to Empty......Page 533
13.4.1 Flow over Sharp-Crested Weirs......Page 534
13.4.2 Rectangular Sharp-Crested Suppressed Weir......Page 535
13.4.4 Rectangular Sharp-Crested Weir with End Contractions......Page 536
13.4.5 Rectangular Sharp-Crested Weir with Velocity of Approach......Page 537
13.4.6 Triangular (V-notch) Weir......Page 538
13.4.7 Trapezoidal Weir......Page 539
13.4.8 Flow over Sharp-Crested, Submerged Weirs......Page 540
13.5 Flow over Broad-Crested Weirs......Page 542
13.5.1 Coefficient of Discharge of Broad-Crested Weirs......Page 544
13.6 Flumes......Page 547
13.7.1 Orifice Meter......Page 549
13.7.2 Nozzle Meter......Page 550
13.7.3 Venturi Meter......Page 552
13.8.1 Slope-Area Method for a Stream Channel......Page 553
13.8.2 Measurement at Width Contractions of a Bridge......Page 555
13.8.3 Measurement at Dams......Page 559
13.9 Storage Structures......Page 560
13.10 Reservoir Storage Capacity......Page 561
13.11 Storage Capacity of Water Supply Tanks......Page 563
13.13 Dams......Page 568
13.13.1 Selection of Dam Type......Page 569
13.15 Overflow Spillways......Page 570
13.15.1 Crest Shape of Overflow Spillways......Page 571
13.15.2 Discharge for Overflow Spillways......Page 574
13.15.3 Discharge on Submerged Overflow Spillways......Page 578
13.16 Chute or Trough Spillways......Page 581
13.16.1 Slope of Chute Channel......Page 582
13.16.2 Chute Sidewalls......Page 583
13.17 Side-Channel Spillways......Page 584
13.18 Morning Glory or Shaft Spillways......Page 587
14.2 Elements of the Channel Section......Page 600
14.4 State of Flow......Page 603
14.5.2 Computation of Critical Flow......Page 605
14.6.1 Hydraulics of Uniform Flow......Page 609
14.6.2 Computation of Uniform Flow......Page 611
14.8.1 Bottom Longitudinal Slope......Page 616
14.8.4 Hydraulic Efficient Sections......Page 617
14.8.5 Design Procedure......Page 618
14.9 Rigid Channel Carrying Sediment-Laden Water......Page 619
14.10.1 Unit Tractive Force on Channel Boundary......Page 620
14.10.3 The USBR Method......Page 621
14.10.4 The Stability Parameter Method......Page 623
14.11 Loose-Boundary Channel Carrying Sediment-Laden Water......Page 626
14.11.3 Lacey’s Original Regime Theory......Page 627
14.11.4 Hydraulic Basis of the Regime Theory......Page 628
14.11.5 Combining the Regime Theory with the Power Function Theory......Page 629
14.12.1 Dynamic Equation of Gradually Varied Flow......Page 632
14.12.3 Flow Profile Analysis......Page 634
14.13.1 Numerical Integration Method......Page 636
14.13.2 Direct Step Method......Page 638
14.15 Hydraulic Jump......Page 641
15.1 Distribution System Components......Page 648
15.3 Energy Equation of Pipe Flow......Page 649
15.4.1 Friction Factor for Darcy-Weisbach Equation......Page 652
15.5.2 Type II: To Determine Velocity or Flow Rate......Page 657
15.5.3 Type III: To Determine Diameter......Page 658
15.6 Pipe Friction Losses: Hazen-Williams Equation......Page 660
15.8 Minor Head Losses......Page 663
15.9 Single Pipelines......Page 664
15.10 Single Pipelines with Pumps......Page 667
15.11 Pipes in Series......Page 669
15.12 Pipes in Parallel......Page 671
15.13 Branching Pipes......Page 673
15.14 Pipes Network......Page 676
15.15.1 System Configuration......Page 679
15.15.2 Design Flow Estimation......Page 680
15.15.4 Pressure Requirements......Page 681
15.16 A Network Design Project......Page 682
15.18 Storage Tanks......Page 683
15.20.1 System without Storage......Page 684
15.20.3 System with Storage Beyond Demand Center......Page 685
15.22 Pump Classification: Specific Speed......Page 687
15.23 Relations for Geometrically Similar Pumps......Page 688
15.24 Relations for Alterations in the Same Pump......Page 689
15.25 Head Terms in Pumping......Page 691
15.27 Pump Characteristic Curves......Page 692
15.28 Single Pump and Pipeline System......Page 695
15.30 Pumps in Series......Page 697
15.31 Pumps in Parallel......Page 700
15.32 Limit on Pump Location......Page 702
16.1 Types of Drainage Systems......Page 714
16.2 Layout of an Urban Drainage System......Page 715
16.4 Quantity of Wastewater......Page 717
16.5 Friction Coefficient for Sanitary Sewers......Page 719
16.6 Design Procedure for Sanitary Sewers......Page 720
16.7 A Sanitary Sewer Project......Page 721
16.10 Rational Method......Page 726
16.10.1 Frequency Correction factor, Cf......Page 727
16.10.2 Runoff Coefficient, C......Page 728
16.10.4 Rainfall Intensity, i......Page 730
16.10.5 Time of Concentration, tc......Page 732
16.11 Application of the Rational Method......Page 736
16.12 The NRCS (SCS) TR-55 Method......Page 739
16.13 A Storm Sewer Design Project......Page 744
16.14.1 TR-55-Based Procedure......Page 748
16.14.2 Rational-Method-Based Procedure......Page 749
17.2 Surface Drainage for Agricultural Land......Page 760
17.3 Subsurface Drainage for Agricultural Land......Page 762
17.3.1 Layout of Pipe (Tube) Drainage System......Page 764
17.4 Depth and Spacing of Drains......Page 765
17.4.1 Application of Bureau of Reclamation Method......Page 766
17.4.2 Design Discharge for Determining Subsurface Drain Pipe Size......Page 771
17.6 Longitudinal Drainage Systems......Page 773
17.6.1 Design Flows for Longitudinal Drainage......Page 774
17.7 Cross-Drainage Systems: Culverts......Page 776
17.7.1 Design of Culverts......Page 779
17.8 Airport Drainage Systems......Page 785
18.2 Principles of Remote Sensing......Page 796
18.3.1 Remote-Sensing Platforms......Page 797
18.3.2 Remote-Sensing Sensors......Page 798
18.3.3 Image-Processing Systems......Page 799
18.4 Integration of Remote Sensing with GIS......Page 800
18.5.2 Snow......Page 802
18.5.4 Soil Moisture......Page 803
18.5.7 Groundwater......Page 804
18.7 Computer Models for Hydrology......Page 805
18.8 Computer Models of Watershed Hydrology......Page 806
18.9 Statistical Models......Page 807
18.11 Reservoir Planning and Analysis Models......Page 810
18.13.2 Steady-State Flood Hydraulics Models......Page 811
18.13.4 Reservoir Regulation Models......Page 812
18.14 Drainage models......Page 813
18.15 Coupling of Hydrological Models and GIS......Page 815
Appendix A......Page 818
Appendix B......Page 821
Appendix C......Page 822
Appendix D......Page 824
Appendix E......Page 826
Appendix F......Page 827
Appendix G......Page 830
Appendix H......Page 831
Appendix I......Page 833
Appendix J......Page 835
References......Page 837
Answers to Selected Problems
......Page 861
Index......Page 886