Hydrogen Technology: Mobile and Portable Applications

HYDROGEN TECHNOLOGY: MOBILE AND PORTABLE APPLICATIONS......Page 1
Springerlink......Page 0
Half-title......Page 2
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
Dedication......Page 6
Acknowledgements......Page 8
Contents......Page 10
List of Contributors......Page 14
Aline Léon......Page 18
References......Page 24
Part I: Hydrogen Cycle......Page 26
Aline Léon......Page 28
List of Abbreviations......Page 32
2.1 Introduction......Page 34
2.2.1 Hydrogen from Coal......Page 35
2.2.1.1 Conventional Combustion Process of Coal......Page 36
2.2.1.2 Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC)......Page 38
2.2.2.1 Steam Reforming, Partial Oxidation, Autothermal Reforming......Page 42
2.2.2.2 Available Commercial Plants......Page 45
2.2.2.3 Distributed Generation from Natural Gas......Page 46
2.2.2.4 Economic Efficiency of Hydrogen Production......Page 47
2.2.2.6 Outlook......Page 50
2.3 Hydrogen from Nuclear Energy......Page 52
2.4.1 Hydrogen from Water Electrolysis......Page 57
2.4.1.2 Electrolysis with a Solid Polymer and Liquid Electrolyte......Page 58
2.4.1.3 Commercial Electrolyzers......Page 60
2.4.1.4 Cost of Hydrogen from Electrolysis......Page 61
2.4.1.5 Research Priorities......Page 62
2.4.1.7 Outlook......Page 64
2.4.2 Hydrogen from Wind Energy......Page 65
2.4.2.1 History......Page 66
2.4.2.2 Technical Principle......Page 68
2.4.2.3 Cost Issue......Page 70
2.4.2.4 Wind Technology and H2......Page 71
2.4.2.5 Environmental Impact......Page 72
2.4.3 Hydrogen from Solar Energy......Page 73
2.4.3.1 Silicon, Thin-Film Technologies......Page 74
2.4.3.2 Cost Issue......Page 76
2.4.3.3 Novel Concepts......Page 77
2.4.3.4 Outlook......Page 79
2.4.4.1 Biomass from Photosynthesis......Page 80
2.4.4.2 H2 from Photobiological Processes......Page 86
2.4.4.3 Outlook......Page 88
2.5 Conclusions......Page 89
References......Page 94
List of Abbreviations......Page 98
3.1 Introduction......Page 99
3.2 Purification of Hydrogen......Page 100
3.3.1 Characteristics of CGH2......Page 101
3.3.2 Hydrogen Compressors......Page 102
3.3.2.1 Mechanical Compressors......Page 103
3.3.2.2 Non-mechanical Compressor......Page 106
3.3.3 Storage of CGH2......Page 109
3.4 Liquid Hydrogen (LH2)......Page 110
3.4.1 Characteristics of Liquid Hydrogen......Page 111
3.4.2.1 Design of a Liquefier......Page 113
3.4.2.2 Industrial Liquefiers......Page 115
3.4.4 Liquefaction Cost......Page 117
3.5 Solid Storage of Hydrogen (SSH2)......Page 119
3.5.1.1 Hydrogen Storage by Physisorption......Page 120
3.5.1.2 Hydrogen Storage by Chemisorption......Page 123
3.5.2.1 Chemical Hydrides......Page 134
3.5.2.2 Organic Cycle Compounds......Page 136
3.6 Conclusions......Page 138
Notes......Page 139
References......Page 140
List of abbreviations......Page 146
4.2 Hydrogen Distribution by Gas Pipelines......Page 147
4.2.1 Overview of World Pipeline Networks......Page 148
4.2.2 Pipeline Characteristics......Page 151
4.2.2.1 Pipeline Flow Capacity and Operating Pressure......Page 152
4.2.2.2 Pipeline Materials......Page 153
4.3.1 Delivery by Compressed Gas Trailers......Page 155
4.4 Underground Storage of Hydrogen......Page 156
4.4.1 Natural Underground Storage......Page 157
4.4.2 Underground Storage in Tanks......Page 158
4.4.2.1 Compressed Gas Tanks......Page 159
4.4.2.2 Liquid Tanks......Page 160
4.5.2 High-Pressure Filling......Page 162
4.6 Conclusion......Page 165
References......Page 166
Jens Oluf Jensen and Qingfeng Li......Page 168
5.1 Introduction......Page 169
5.2 What is a Fuel Cell?......Page 170
5.3.1 The Energies Involved......Page 172
5.3.2 The Conversion Efficiency......Page 173
5.4 The Cell Performance......Page 176
5.4.1 Activation Losses......Page 177
5.4.3 Mass Transport Losses......Page 181
5.5.1 Single Cells and Stacks......Page 182
5.5.2 Fuel Processing......Page 184
5.5.3 Fuel and Air Stoichiometry......Page 186
5.5.4 Fuel Cell Systems......Page 187
5.6 Fuel Cell Types......Page 188
5.7.2 Cells, Stacks, and System......Page 190
5.7.4 NaBH4 Fuel Cells......Page 191
5.8.2 Cells, Stacks, and System......Page 192
5.9.1 Electrolyte and Electrodes......Page 193
5.9.2 Cells, Stacks, and System......Page 194
5.9.3 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells......Page 195
5.9.5 High-Temperature PEMFC......Page 196
5.10 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC)......Page 197
5.10.2 Cells, Stacks, and System......Page 198
5.11.1 Electrolyte and Electrodes......Page 199
5.11.2 Cells, Stacks, and System......Page 200
References......Page 201
Part II: State of the Art Mobile Applications......Page 202
List of Abbreviations......Page 204
6.1 Status Quo of Existing Car Technologies......Page 205
6.2 Current Fuel Alternatives and their Potential to Substitute Gasoline and Diesel......Page 206
6.2.1 Synthetic Fuels......Page 207
6.2.2 Bio-Fuels......Page 208
6.2.5 Battery Electric Storage......Page 209
6.3 General Requirements on Hydrogen Powered Cars......Page 210
6.4.1 Fast and Convenient Re-Filling......Page 217
6.4.2 Driving Range and Driving Dynamics......Page 218
6.4.4 Reliability and Durability......Page 219
Notes......Page 220
References......Page 221
Ted Hollinger and Tapan Bose......Page 224
List of Abbreviations......Page 225
7a.1.1 Properties of Hydrogen......Page 226
7a.1.2 Consequences of these Properties for an ICE......Page 228
7a.2.1 Use of a Turbo Charger or Direct Injection......Page 230
7a.2.3 Use of Mixed Gases......Page 232
7a.4 Engine Controls......Page 233
7a.5 Delivery Mode of the Fuel (or Fuel Injection)......Page 236
7a.6.3 Exhaust System......Page 237
7a.6.4 Turbo Charger......Page 238
7a.6.4.2 Engine Oil......Page 240
7a.6.4.4 Crankcase Ventilation and Filter System for Hydrogen-Fueled Engines......Page 241
7a.8 HC and NOx Emissions......Page 243
7a.10 Sensors and Venting......Page 244
7a.11 Future Applications......Page 245
7a.11.2 Engine Efficiency......Page 246
7a.11.4 Power vs. Speed......Page 247
7a.12 Conclusion......Page 248
Acknowledgements......Page 249
References......Page 250
List of Abbreviations......Page 252
7b.1 Introduction......Page 253
7b.3 Essence of Hybrid Technology and its Evolution......Page 256
7b.3.1 The Toyota Prius and its History......Page 257
7b.3.2 Internal Combustion Engine for HVs......Page 259
7b.3.2.2 Exhaust Emissions-Reducing Technology......Page 260
7b.3.3 Electric Motor & Transmission......Page 262
7b.3.3.1 High-Power Performance......Page 263
7b.3.3.2 Motor Downsizing......Page 264
7b.3.3.4 Efficiency of the Motor......Page 265
7b.3.3.5 Cooling Performance......Page 267
7b.3.3.6 Production Engineering......Page 269
7b.3.4.2 Evolution of the Electric System......Page 270
7b.3.4.3 Power control Unit (PCU) for the Variable-Voltage System......Page 273
7b.3.5.1 Battery Development......Page 279
7b.3.5.2 Details of the Battery......Page 280
7b.3.5.3 Improvement of Battery Performance......Page 284
7b.3.6 Magnet Material......Page 286
7b.4.2 Hybrids Compared to Gasoline and Diesel......Page 287
References......Page 288
List of abbreviations......Page 290
7c.2 The PEM Fuel Cell......Page 291
7c.2.1 Efficiency of the Fuel Cell......Page 292
7c.2.2 The PEM Fuel Cell Under Load Conditions......Page 294
7c.3 The Electric Traction System......Page 296
7c.4 Auxiliary Components......Page 297
7c.4.1 Air Supply......Page 298
7c.4.2 Fuel System, Anode Re-circulation Pump......Page 299
7c.4.3 Further Auxiliary Devices......Page 300
7c.5 Tank-to-wheel Efficiency Map......Page 301
7c.6 Electrical Energy Storage......Page 303
7c.7 Summary and Outlook on Future Developments......Page 304
References......Page 307
Neel Sirosh and Alan Niedzwiecki......Page 308
8a.1 Introduction......Page 309
8a.2 Types of Pressure Vessels......Page 311
8a.3 Compressed Hydrogen Storage System......Page 313
8a.4 Storage System Requirements......Page 316
8a.5 Construction Materials......Page 317
8a.5.3 Glass Fibers......Page 318
8a.5.5 Organic Fibers......Page 319
8a.7 Manufacturing Processes......Page 320
8a.8 Test and Validation......Page 322
8a.9 Regulatory Requirements......Page 323
8a.10.1 Hydrogen Loss......Page 324
8a.10.4 High Temperatures......Page 325
References......Page 326
List of Abbreviations......Page 328
8b.1.1 Storage Efficiency......Page 329
8b.1.3 Advantage of and Challenges Related to LH2 for Mobile Application......Page 331
8b.2.1 Basic Technical Requirements......Page 332
8b.2.3 Safety Regulations......Page 333
8b.3.1 General Concept of a Liquid Hydrogen Tank......Page 335
8b.3.2 Components Design......Page 337
8b.3.3 Thermal Management......Page 338
8b.3.4 Pressure Management......Page 341
8b.3.5 Weight Reduction......Page 343
8b.4 Types of Cryogenic Tanks......Page 345
8b.4.1 Examples of Cylindrical Tanks......Page 346
8b.4.3 BMW Race Car Tank......Page 348
8b.5 Challenges for Commercialisation......Page 349
References......Page 350
List of Abbreviations......Page 352
9.1 Motivation of Safety Investigations......Page 353
9.1.1 Safety-Relevant Properties of Vehicle Fuels......Page 354
9.1.2 Statistics of Hydrogen Incidents......Page 358
9.2 Analysis of Hydrogen Accidents......Page 361
9.3 Analysis Procedure......Page 363
9.3.1.2 Mitigation......Page 364
9.3.1.5 Hydrogen Distribution......Page 365
9.3.2.2 Flame Acceleration......Page 366
9.3.2.3 Deflagration-to-Detonation Transition (DDT)......Page 368
9.3.3 Third Phase: Combustion Simulation......Page 370
9.3.5 Mitigation Measures......Page 371
9.4 Application in the Case of H2 Release in a Garage......Page 372
9.4.1 Mixture Generation......Page 373
9.4.2 Hazard Potential......Page 374
9.4.3 Combustion......Page 378
9.4.4.1 Structural Response......Page 380
9.4.4.2 Human Injury......Page 382
9.4.5 Summary of Results of Garage Investigations......Page 383
9.5 Safety Issues for Hydrogen Vehicles and Infrastructure......Page 384
9.5.1 Hazards Resulting from Vehicle Operation......Page 385
9.5.2.1 Accident Scenarios......Page 387
9.6 Outlook......Page 390
References......Page 392
Part III: State of the Art Portable Applications......Page 394
Aline Léon......Page 396
List of Abbreviations......Page 398
11.1.1 Existing Power and Energy Density......Page 399
11.1.2.1 Description......Page 401
11.1.2.2.2 Fe Olivine Structures......Page 404
11.1.2.3 Fast Charge Method......Page 406
11.1.3 Wafer-level Batteries......Page 407
11.2 Photovoltaic Portable Modules......Page 408
11.2.1 Description......Page 409
11.2.2 Flexible Photovoltaic Modules......Page 411
11.3 Status of Portable Fuel Cells......Page 413
11.3.1.1 Planar Fuel Cell......Page 414
11.3.1.2 300 W Air-cooled PEM Fuel Cell......Page 415
11.3.2 Portable PEM Fuel Cells Available......Page 417
11.3.2.4 Protonex/Millennium Cell 30 W Sodium Borohydride PEM as Soldier Power System......Page 418
11.3.2.8 10 mW Micro PEM Fuel Cell with Coin-cell Hydrogen Generator......Page 419
11.4 Comparison of Li-ion Batteries and Portable Fuel Cells......Page 420
References......Page 424
List of Abbreviations......Page 426
12.1 Introduction......Page 427
12.2 The Fuel Cell Core – Micro Fabrication Technologies......Page 428
12.2.1 Hydrogen PEM Micro Fuel Cells......Page 429
12.2.1.1 Design of Micro-Patterned Flow Fields and Planar Air-Breathing Fuel Cells......Page 430
12.2.1.2 Micro Porous Flow Fields and Polymer Laminate Technology......Page 432
12.2.1.3 Micro Patterned Electrodes......Page 434
12.2.1.4 Micro Fabricated ion Conductors......Page 435
12.2.2 Direct Methanol Micro Fuel Cells......Page 437
12.3.1 DMFC......Page 440
12.3.2 PEM Fuel Cells with Chemical Hydrides......Page 442
12.3.2.1 Control by Flow Rate......Page 444
12.3.3 Galvanic Cells......Page 445
12.4 System Integration and Thermal Management......Page 448
12.5 Standardisation......Page 451
References......Page 453
List of abbreviations......Page 456
13.1 Basics of DMFC System Technology......Page 458
13.2 Basic Challenges......Page 460
13.2.1 Performance......Page 461
13.2.2 Reliability......Page 463
13.2.3 Durability......Page 464
13.2.4 Infrastructure......Page 465
References......Page 466
Part IV: Advanced Tools for the Development of new Materials......Page 468
Aline Léon......Page 470
15.1 Introduction......Page 472
15.2 New Reaction Pathways Using Theoretical Calculations......Page 473
15.3.1 Description......Page 474
15.4.1 Description of the Ball Milling Process......Page 476
15.4.2.1 Magnesium Hydride......Page 478
15.4.2.2 Complex Aluminium Hydrides......Page 479
15.4.3.1 Mixed Hydrides......Page 481
15.4.3.2 Destabilisation Reactions......Page 482
15.4.3.4 Reactive Ball Milling......Page 484
References......Page 486
List of Abbreviations......Page 488
16a.1 Introduction......Page 489
16a.2.1 Thermodynamics......Page 490
16a.2.2 Kinetics of Hydride Formation......Page 494
16a.3 Experimental Methods and Devices......Page 497
16a.3.1 Volumetric Methods......Page 498
16a.3.1.2 Constant Pressure Systems......Page 499
16a.3.2.1 Thermogravimetry (TG)......Page 500
16a.3.2.3 Tapered Element Oscillating Microbalance (TEOM)......Page 501
16a.4.1 Description of the Apparatus......Page 502
16a.4.2.1 Sample Holder......Page 505
16a.4.2.3 Hydrogen Gas......Page 506
16a.4.4 Measurement Process......Page 507
16a.4.5 Effect of Aliquot Size......Page 508
16a.5 Safety......Page 509
16a.6 Conclusion......Page 510
References......Page 511
Appendix A......Page 516
List of abbreviations......Page 518
16b.1 Introduction and Definitions......Page 519
16b.2 Measurement Principles of DTA and DSC......Page 521
16b.3.1 Description......Page 524
16b.3.2 Sample Preparation......Page 526
16b.3.3 Signal Constitution......Page 527
16b.3.4.1 Temperature Calibration......Page 529
16b.4 Applications......Page 530
16b.4.1 Thermal Behaviour of Mg(BH4)2 [23]......Page 532
16b.4.2 Van’t Hoff Plot of MgH2......Page 533
16b.4.3 Activation Energies of LiAlH4 [25]......Page 535
References......Page 537
List of Abbreviations......Page 540
17a.1 Principles of Diffraction......Page 541
17a.2 Diffraction of X-Rays and Neutrons......Page 543
17a.2.1 Sources of Radiation for Diffraction Experiments......Page 545
17a.2.2 Instruments for Powder Diffraction......Page 547
17a.3.1 The Fingerprint Method for Phase Identification......Page 549
17a.3.2 The Rietveld Method......Page 550
17a.3.3 Crystal Structure Determination......Page 552
17a.4 Powder Diffraction Investigations of Hydrogen Storage Materials......Page 555
17a.4.1 Crystal Structure Determination......Page 556
17a.4.2 In Situ Investigations......Page 557
References......Page 563
Further Reading......Page 565
List of Abbreviations......Page 566
17b.1 Introduction......Page 567
17b.2 Principle of EDS and EELS Spectroscopy......Page 568
17b.2.1 The EDS Technique......Page 569
17b.2.2 The EELS Technique......Page 571
17b.2.4 Special Conditions of the Preparation of Beam-Sensitive Samples......Page 574
17b.3.2 Ti(OBu[sup(n)])4 Precursor......Page 578
17b.3.4 Ti13·6THF Cluster Precursor......Page 579
17b.3.5 TiCl3 Precursor......Page 583
17b.4 Conclusions......Page 588
References......Page 589
List of Abbreviations......Page 592
17c.1.1 Basics and Definitions......Page 594
17c.1.2 Determination of Atomic Concentration......Page 596
17c.1.3 Spectral Features......Page 597
17c.1.3.2 Satellites, Plasmons, and Multiplet Splitting......Page 598
17c.1.4 Surface Sensitivity......Page 599
17c.1.5 Charge Referencing......Page 601
17c.1.6 XPS Sputter Depth Profiling......Page 602
17c.2.1 The Need for Ultra-high Vacuum......Page 603
17c.2.2 Energy Resolution and Instrument Calibration......Page 604
17c.3.1.1 Sample Preparation......Page 606
17c.3.2 XPS Survey Spectra and Atomic Concentrations......Page 607
17c.3.3.1 Reference Materials......Page 609
17c.3.3.2 NaAlH4 Doped with Ti Based on TiCl3 or Ti13·6THF by Ball Milling......Page 610
17c.3.3.3 Cycling of Ti-doped NaAlH 4 Based on TiCl3 or Ti13·6THF......Page 612
17c.3.4 XPS Depth profiles of Ti-doped NaAlH4 Based on TiCl3......Page 614
17c.3.5.2 Insights into the Reaction......Page 616
References......Page 617
List of Abbreviations......Page 620
17d.1 X-ray Absorption Fine Structure (XAFS)......Page 622
17d.1.1 Experimental Setup and Data Reduction......Page 623
17d.1.2 EXAFS: Extended X-ray Absorption Fine Structure......Page 625
17d.1.3 XANES: X-ray Absorption Near-Edge Structure......Page 628
17d.2 Investigation of Ti-doped NaAlH4 by XAFS......Page 629
17d.2.1 Initial Dehydrogenation/Rehydrogenation with TiCl3 as Dopant Material......Page 630
17d.2.2 Ti13·6THF in Comparison to TiCl3 as Dopant Material – Further Hydrogen Cycling......Page 633
17d.2.3 An Alternative Strategy......Page 636
References......Page 638
Part V: Perspectives......Page 640
18.1 Introduction......Page 642
18.2 Production......Page 644
18.3 Storage......Page 647
18.3.2 Liquid Hydrogen......Page 649
18.3.3 Solid Storage......Page 650
References......Page 652
19.1 Introduction......Page 654
19.2.1 Current Figures......Page 656
19.2.2.1 Change in the Climate......Page 657
19.2.2.2 Change in the Ecosystem (i.e. Agriculture)......Page 658
19.2.3.1 De-carbonisation of the Fuels......Page 659
19.2.3.2 Energy Efficiency......Page 661
19.2.3.3 Government Policies of Industrialized and Developing Countries......Page 663
19.3.2 Innovative Technologies to Facilitate Hydrogen Penetration in the Market......Page 664
19.4 Conclusions......Page 668
References......Page 669
20.1 Introduction......Page 672
20.2 Identifying Policy Priorities......Page 673
20.3.1 Projected Scenario by 2030 in the Absence of New Policies......Page 674
20.3.2 Alternative Policy Scenario......Page 675
20.4.1 Current RD&D Initiatives......Page 676
20.5 Economics of Hydrogen......Page 677
20.5.1 Fuel Cell Vehicles......Page 678
20.6 What Future for Hydrogen?......Page 679
References......Page 680
Index......Page 682