Hydrogen Economy, The: Fundamentals, Technology, Economics

CONTENTS
Disclaimer
Introduction, Preamble, Executive Summary
Summary Observations
	Production
		Blue hydrogen
		Green hydrogen
		Storage and transport
		Competitive position
Chapter 1 The Market for Hydrogen
	The Use of Hydrogen in the Process Industries
	Safety
	Oil Refineries
		Naphtha Isomerization
		Naphtha and Distillate Hydro-Treating
		Hydro-Cracking
		The Naphtha Reformer
		The Refinery Hydrogen Market
	Petrochemicals
		Naphtha Hydro-Treating
		Hydrogen Use in Down-Stream Operations
		Naphtha Reforming and Aromatics
			Benzene
			Toluene
			Xylenes
			Oxo-alcohols
	The Use of Hydrogen in the Chemicals Industry
		Methanol (CH3OH)
			Methanol and the hydrogen economy
		Ammonia
			Ammonia manufacture
			Importance of ammonia in the hydrogen economy
	The Use of Hydrogen in Reducing Metal Ores
		Direct Reduction of Iron Ore
			Shaft reduction process
			Iron ore fines reduction process
			Role of DRI in the hydrogen economy
	Observations
Chapter 2 Methods of Hydrogen Production
	The Production of Hydrogen from Coal
		Gasification
			Solid gas reactions
			Gas phase reactions
			Process optimisation
			Pyrolysis
		Gasifier Types
			Moving bed gasifier
			Fluid-bed gasifier
			Entrained-bed gasifiers
			Texaco slurry entrained-bed gasifier (GE gasifier)
			Comparative performance of gasifiers
	The Production of Hydrogen from Natural Gas
		Steam Reforming
		Maximising Hydrogen Yield
		Partial Oxidation
		Auto-Thermal Reforming
	The Production of Pure Hydrogen
		The WGS Process
			Water-gas
			Water-gas-shift
		Hydrogen Purification
			Methanation
			Separation
			Pressure-swing adsorption (PSA)
			Membrane separation systems
			Cryogenic separation
	Hydrogen Production from the Hydrocarbon Process Industry
		Hydrogen Yield from Steam Cracking
		Hydrogen from Propane and Butane De-Hydrogenation Processes
			Hydrogen production
		Carbon Black
	Hydrogen Production from the Chlor-Alkali Industry
		Hydrogen Production
	Hydrogen in Natural Gas
	Observations
Chapter 3 The Cost of Hydrogen Production From Fossil Fuels
	Hydrogen Production from Natural Gas
		The Concept of a Central Production Facility
	Cost of Hydrogen Production from a Central Facility from Natural Gas
		By-Product Credits
		Gas Price
		Capital Cost
		Greenhouse Emissions from Steam Methane Reforming (SMR)
	Impact of Scale of Operation
	Hydrogen from Coal
		Cost of Hydrogen Production from Coal
		Sensitivity to Coal Price
	Greenhouse Gas Emissions
		Greenhouse Emissions in the Production of Hydrogen
			Carbon dioxide capture from dilute, impure streams
			Carbon dioxide capture from concentrated, relatively pure streams
		Membrane Systems
		Adsorption Systems
		Absorption Systems
		Cryogenic Processes
			Cost of carbon dioxide removal from hydrogen process streams
		Carbon Dioxide Geo-Sequestration — Carbon Capture and Storage
			Greenfield geo-sequestration
		Development Status
			Great plains synfuels — Dakota gasification company (North Dakota, USA)
			Norwegian CCS — Sleipner gas field CCS and Snohvit CCS
			Gorgon gas project (Barrow Island, Western Australia)
		Case Study
			Waste-heat recovery
			Fan (compressor)
			Flue-gas desulphurisation
			MEA carbon dioxide extraction
			Compression, pipeline and CCS wells
	Discussion
Chapter 4 The Production of Hydrogen From Renewable Sources
	The Production of Hydrogen by Electrolysis
	Electrolysis
		Overview of Cell Operation
			Water
			The cathode
			The anode
			The DC supply
			Impact of temperature on required EMF
			Impact of pressure on required EMF
		Membrane Compression of Hydrogen
	High-Temperature Electrolysis
	Comparison of Performance of Different Cells
	Other Approaches
	Impact of Solar Radiation Variation on Electrolysis
	Economics of Hydrogen Production by Electrolysis
		Production costs by electrolysis
			Capital costs
			Power costs
			Estimate of hydrogen production costs by PEM electrolysis cell
	Photochemical Water Splitting
	Hydrogen Production from Biomass
		Biomass Logistics
		Biomass Quality
		Process Flow Sheet for Biomass Gasification
		Economics of Biomass to Hydrogen
	Review
		Small-Scale Hydrogen Production
		Larger Scale Hydrogen Production
		Hydrogen from Coal and Biomass
Chapter 5 Hydrogen Storage and Transport
	Hydrogen Storage in Cylinders
	Transport of Hydrogen as Liquid
		Hydrogen Liquefaction
			Ortho and para hydrogen
		Storage of Liquid Hydrogen
			Storage in LNG-type tanks
	Storage in Salt Caverns
	Storage as Hydrides
	Hydrogen Compression
	Hydrogen Transport by Pipelines
		Use of Existing Natural Gas Pipelines
			Heating value
			Wobbe index
			Methane number
		Pipeline Costs
	Cost of Hydrogen Storage and Transport
		Cost of Hydrogen Storage
			Compressed gas
			Liquid hydrogen
			Underground caverns
		Summary
		The Cost of Hydrogen Transport
			Cost of transporting compressed hydrogen by truck
			Cost of transporting liquid hydrogen by truck
			Cost of transporting liquid hydrogen by barge
			Hydrogen transport by pipeline
	Summary
Chapter 6 The Mass Shipping of Hydr
	Cost of Ships and Shipping
		The Shipping Fleet
			Contract shipping costs
			Build-up of shipping costs
		Cost of Shipping Liquid Hydrogen
			Hydrogen liquefaction
			Shipping liquid hydrogen
		Regasification of Liquid Hydrogen
			Adding value in regasification facilities
			Regasification cost
		Summary
		Delivering Hydrogen as Compressed Gas
	Transport of Hydrogen as an Intermediate
		Transport of Hydrogen as a Naphthene (The Spera Process)
			Process thermodynamics
			Process flow for toluene to MCH
			Process flow for MCH to toluene
		Process Economics
		Shipping Toluene and MCH
		Summary
		Transport of Hydrogen as Ammonia
		Economics of Ammonia Synthesis
			Economics of ammonia production by steam methane reforming/gasification
			Economics of ammonia production by water electrolysis
		Ammonia Shipping Cost
		The Cracking of Ammonia to Nitrogen and Hydrogen
		Summary
Chapter 7 Competitive Position of Hydrogen Versus Fossil Fuels
	Fuel Cells
		Low to Moderate Temperature Fuel Cells (ambient to 200°C)
			Alkaline fuel cells
			Proton exchange membrane fuel cells
			Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC)
		High Temperature Fuel Cells (650°C–1000°C)
			Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC)
			Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC)
	Fuel Cell Applications
		Current Use of Fossil Fuels in Fuel Cells
			Manufactures of fuel cell vehicles
		Competition for Stationary Applications
		Competition for Vehicle Applications
	Competitive Position Hydrogen and Fossil Fuels in Vehicles
		Taxes and Local Premiums
		Relative Engine Efficiencies
		The Price of Conventional Fossil Fuels
Chapter 8 Case Studies for the Hydrogen Economy
	Case Study 1: Hydrogen Production and Use in a Domestic Setting
	Case Study 2: Hydrogen from Large-Scale Solar Power
		Option 1: Hydrogen Delivery by Pipeline
		Option 2: Hydrogen Delivered by Existing Pipeline
		Option 3: Delivery of Power from Remote Solar Farm by Transmission Line to Central Hydrogen Production Facility
		Comparison to Conventional Fuels
	Case Study 3: Remotely Produced Hydrogen Shipped to North East Asia
		Option 1: Shipping Hydrogen as Liquid and Regasification
		Option 2: Shipping Hydrogen as LNG
		Option 3: Transport as Ammonia to Japan
		Summary
	Case Study 4: Hydrogen from Victorian Ligniteto North East Asia
Appendices
	A1. Properties of Hydrogen
	A2: Comparison of Hydrogen to Other Fuels
	A3: Conversion Factors
	A4: Cost Indices
	A5: Location Factors
	A6: Relation of Delivered Equipment to Final Capital Cost
	A7: Methodology for Economic Analysis
		Capital Costs (C)
		Capital Recovery Factors
		Fixed Operating Costs (O)
			Working capital
			Labour, maintenance and administrative costs
			Catalysts and chemicals
			Other operating costs
	A8: Indexed Fuel and Construction Costs
	A9: Accuracy of Cost Estimates
		Concept or Scoping Study
		Feasibility Study
		Bankable Feasibility Study
		Front-End Engineering and Design
	A10: Abbreviations
Index