Hydrodynamics and Water Quality: Modeling Rivers, Lakes, and Estuaries

HYDRODYNAMICS AND WATER QUALITY......Page 3
CONTENTS......Page 9
Foreword......Page 15
Preface......Page 17
Acknowledgments......Page 19
ABBREVIATIONS......Page 21
1.1 Overview......Page 27
1.2 Understanding Surface Waters......Page 30
1.3 Modeling of Surface Waters......Page 33
1.4 About This Book......Page 37
2 Hydrodynamics......Page 39
2.1.1 Water Density......Page 40
2.1.2 Conservation Laws......Page 42
2.1.3 Advection and Dispersion......Page 46
2.1.4 Mass Balance Equation......Page 51
2.1.5 Atmospheric Forcings......Page 53
2.1.6 Coriolis Force and Geostrophic Flow......Page 58
2.2.1 Basic Approximations......Page 61
2.2.2 Equations in Cartesian Coordinates......Page 64
2.2.3 Vertical Mixing and Turbulence Models......Page 74
2.2.4 Equations in Curvilinear Coordinates......Page 78
2.2.5 Initial Conditions and Boundary Conditions......Page 84
2.3 Temperature......Page 88
2.3.1 Heatflux Components......Page 91
2.3.2 Temperature Formulations......Page 99
2.4 Hydrodynamic Modeling......Page 103
2.4.1 Hydrodynamic Parameters and Data Requirements......Page 104
2.4.2 Case Study I: Lake Okeechobee......Page 108
2.4.3 Case Study II: St. Lucie Estuary and Indian River Lagoon......Page 124
3.1 Overview......Page 139
3.1.1 Properties of Sediment......Page 140
3.1.2 Problems Associated with Sediment......Page 143
3.2 Sediment Processes......Page 145
3.2.1 Particle Settling......Page 146
3.2.2 Horizontal Transport of Sediment......Page 148
3.2.3 Resuspension and Deposition......Page 152
3.2.4 Equations for Sediment Transport......Page 154
3.2.5 Turbidity and Secchi Depth......Page 156
3.3 Cohesive Sediment......Page 160
3.3.1 Vertical Profiles of Cohesive Sediment Concentrations......Page 162
3.3.2 Flocculation......Page 164
3.3.3 Settling of Cohesive Sediment......Page 165
3.3.4 Deposition of Cohesive Sediment......Page 169
3.3.5 Resuspension of Cohesive Sediment......Page 171
3.4.1 Shields Diagram......Page 175
3.4.2 Settling and Equilibrium Concentration......Page 178
3.4.3 Bed Load Transport......Page 181
3.5 Sediment Bed......Page 182
3.5.1 Characteristics of Sediment Bed......Page 183
3.5.2 A Model for Sediment Bed......Page 185
3.6 Wind Waves......Page 188
3.6.1 Wave Processes......Page 189
3.6.2 Wind Wave Characteristics......Page 194
3.6.3 Wind Wave Models......Page 196
3.6.4 Combined Flows of Wind Waves and Currents......Page 198
3.6.5 Case Study: Wind Wave Modeling in Lake Okeechobee......Page 200
3.7 Sediment Transport Modeling......Page 205
3.7.1 Sediment Parameters and Data Requirements......Page 206
3.7.2 Case Study I: Lake Okeechobee......Page 208
3.7.3 Case Study II: Blackstone River......Page 217
4.1 Overview......Page 227
4.2 Pathogens......Page 229
4.2.1 Bacteria, Viruses, and Protozoa......Page 230
4.2.2 Pathogen Indicators......Page 232
4.2.3 Processes Affecting Pathogens......Page 234
4.3 Toxic Substances......Page 236
4.3.1 Toxic Organic Chemicals......Page 239
4.3.2 Metals......Page 240
4.3.3 Sorption and Desorption......Page 242
4.4.1 Mathematical Formulations......Page 246
4.4.2 Processes Affecting Fate and Decay......Page 249
4.5 Contaminant Modeling......Page 255
4.5.1 Case Study I: St. Lucie Estuary and Indian River Lagoon......Page 256
4.5.2 Case Study II: Rockford Lake......Page 265
5 Water Quality and Eutrophication......Page 273
5.1.1 Eutrophication......Page 274
5.1.2 Algae......Page 276
5.1.3 Nutrients......Page 279
5.1.4 Dissolved Oxygen......Page 287
5.1.5 Governing Equations for Water Quality Processes......Page 288
5.2 Algae......Page 300
5.2.1 Algal Biomass and Chlorophyll......Page 301
5.2.2 Equations for Algal Processes......Page 303
5.2.3 Algal Growth......Page 305
5.2.4 Algal Reduction......Page 311
5.2.5 Silica and Diatom......Page 315
5.2.6 Periphyton......Page 318
5.3 Organic Carbon......Page 320
5.3.2 Equations for Organic Carbon......Page 322
5.3.3 Heterotrophic Respiration and Dissolution......Page 324
5.4 Phosphorus......Page 325
5.4.1 Equations for Phosphorus State Variables......Page 328
5.4.2 Phosphorus Processes......Page 331
5.5 Nitrogen......Page 334
5.5.1 Forms of Nitrogen......Page 335
5.5.2 Equations for Nitrogen State Variables......Page 337
5.5.3 Nitrogen Processes......Page 343
5.6 Dissolved Oxygen......Page 348
5.6.1 Biochemical Oxygen Demand......Page 351
5.6.2 Processes and Equations of Dissolved Oxygen......Page 354
5.6.3 Effects of Photosynthesis and Respiration......Page 357
5.6.4 Reaeration......Page 358
5.7 Sediment Fluxes......Page 362
5.7.1 Sediment Diagenesis Model......Page 364
5.7.2 Depositional Fluxes......Page 370
5.7.3 Diagenesis Fluxes......Page 373
5.7.4 Sediment Fluxes......Page 374
5.7.5 Silica......Page 391
5.7.6 Coupling with Sediment Resuspension......Page 392
5.8 Submerged Aquatic Vegetation......Page 394
5.8.1 Introduction......Page 395
5.8.2 Equations for a SAV Model......Page 397
5.8.3 Coupling with the Water Quality Model......Page 404
5.9 Water Quality Modeling......Page 411
5.9.1 Model Parameters and Data Requirements......Page 413
5.9.2 Case Study I: Lake Okeechobee......Page 416
5.9.3 Case Study II: St. Lucie Estuary and Indian River Lagoon......Page 432
6.1 Point Sources and Nonpoint Sources......Page 443
6.2 Atmospheric Deposition......Page 446
6.3.1 Wetlands......Page 450
6.3.2 Groundwater......Page 453
6.4.1 Watershed Processes......Page 456
6.4.2 Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL)......Page 459
7.1 Mathematical Models......Page 463
7.1.1 Numerical Models......Page 466
7.1.2 Model Selection......Page 470
7.1.3 Spatial Resolution and Temporal Resolution......Page 473
7.2 Statistical Analyses......Page 475
7.2.1 Statistics for Model Performance Evaluation......Page 476
7.2.2 Correlation and Regression......Page 478
7.2.3 Spectral Analysis......Page 480
7.2.4 Empirical Orthogonal Function (EOF)......Page 483
7.2.5 EOF Case Study......Page 486
7.3 Model Calibration and Verification......Page 492
7.3.1 Model Calibration......Page 493
7.3.2 Model Verification and Validation......Page 496
7.3.3 Sensitivity Analysis......Page 497
8.1 Characteristics of Rivers......Page 499
8.2.1 River Flow and the Manning Equation......Page 503
8.2.2 Advection and Dispersion in Rivers......Page 507
8.2.3 Flow over Dams......Page 508
8.3.1 Sediment and Contaminants in Rivers......Page 511
8.3.2 Impacts of River Flow on Water Quality......Page 512
8.3.3 Eutrophication and Periphyton in Rivers......Page 514
8.3.4 Dissolved Oxygen in Rivers......Page 515
8.4 River Modeling......Page 518
8.4.1 Case Study I: Blackstone River......Page 519
8.4.2 Case Study II: Susquehanna River......Page 529
9.1 Characteristics of Lakes and Reservoirs......Page 535
9.1.1 Key Factors Controlling a Lake......Page 536
9.1.2 Vertical Stratification......Page 537
9.1.3 Biological Zones in Lakes......Page 540
9.1.4 Characteristics of Reservoirs......Page 541
9.1.5 Lake Pollution and Eutrophication......Page 545
9.2 Hydrodynamic Processes......Page 547
9.2.1 Inflow, Outflow, and Water Budget......Page 548
9.2.2 Wind Forcing and Vertical Circulations......Page 551
9.2.3 Seasonal Variations of Stratification......Page 553
9.2.4 Gyres......Page 556
9.2.5 Seiches......Page 558
9.3.1 Sediment Deposition in Reservoirs and Lakes......Page 564
9.3.2 Algae and Nutrient Stratifications......Page 566
9.3.3 Dissolved Oxygen Stratifications......Page 569
9.3.4 Internal Cycling and Limiting Functions in Shallow Lakes......Page 572
9.4 Lake Modeling......Page 576
9.4.1 Case Study I: Lake Tenkiller......Page 577
9.4.2 Case Study II: Lake Okeechobee......Page 586
10.1 Introduction......Page 593
10.2.1 Tides......Page 598
10.2.2 Tidal Currents......Page 602
10.2.3 Harmonic Analysis......Page 606
10.3 Hydrodynamic Processes in Estuaries......Page 610
10.3.1 Salinity......Page 611
10.3.2 Estuarine Circulation......Page 612
10.3.3 Stratifications of Estuaries......Page 614
10.3.4 Flushing Time......Page 619
10.4.1 Sediment Transport under Tidal Forcing......Page 626
10.4.2 Flocculation of Cohesive Sediment and Sediment Trapping......Page 627
10.4.3 Eutrophication in Estuaries......Page 630
10.5 Estuarine and Coastal Modeling......Page 633
10.5.1 Open Boundary Conditions......Page 635
10.5.2 Case Study I: Morro Bay......Page 639
10.5.3 Case Study II: St. Lucie Estuary and Indian River Lagoon......Page 652
A1 Overview......Page 661
A2 Hydrodynamics......Page 662
A5 Water Quality and Eutrophication......Page 663
A6 Numerical Schemes......Page 664
A7 Documentation and Application Aids......Page 665
Appendix B: Conversion Factors......Page 667
Appendix C: Contents of Electronic Files......Page 671
C3 Lake Okeechobee Environmental Model......Page 672
C4 Documentation and Utility Programs......Page 673
Bibliography......Page 675
Index......Page 697