Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems for Remote Telecommunication Stations

Preface
Abbreviations
Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction and Literature Review
	1.1 Background
	1.2 Motivation
	1.3 Problem Definition
	1.4 Renewable Energy Sources
		1.4.1 Wind Energy
		1.4.2 Solar Energy
		1.4.3 Hydraulics
		1.4.4 Geothermal Energy
		1.4.5 Biomass
	1.5 Review of Related Work
	1.6 Approach
	1.7 Book Outlines
	1.8 Summary
Chapter 2: Analyze the Types of Communication Stations
	2.1 Cellular Networks
	2.2 Wired Networks Energy Consumption
	2.3 Summary
Chapter 3: Regenerative Fuel Cells as a Backup Power Supply
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Types of Fuel Cells
		3.2.1 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane FC (PEMFC)
		3.2.2 Molten Carbonate FC (MCFC) and Solid Oxide FC (SOFC)
		3.2.3 Phosphoric Acid Electrolyte FC (PAFC) and Alkaline FC (AFC)
		3.2.4 Direct Methanol FC (DMFC)
		3.2.5 Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC)
		3.2.6 Zinc-Air Fuel Cell (ZAFC)
		3.2.7 Protonic Ceramic Fuel Cell (PCFC)
		3.2.8 Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC)
		3.2.9 Regenerative Fuel Cells
	3.3 Principles of Regenerative Fuel Cells
		3.3.1 Discrete Regenerative Fuel Cells (DRFC)
		3.3.2 Unitized Regenerative Fuel Cells
	3.4 Efficiency of Regenerative Fuel Cell
	3.5 Methodology and Emphasis
		3.5.1 Hydrogen Production Estimation
		3.5.2 Oxygen Production Estimation
		3.5.3 Hydrogen Usage in the Fuel Cell Part
		3.5.4 Air Usage in Fuel Cell Part
		3.5.5 Air Exit Flow Rate
	3.6 Hydrogen Storage
	3.7 Materials Balance in DRFC
		3.7.1 Hydrogen Balance
		3.7.2 Water Balance
		3.7.3 Oxygen Balance
	3.8 Summary
Chapter 4: Optimum Sizing of Ultracapacitors
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Ultracapacitor Characteristics
		4.2.1 Temperature Dependency
		4.2.2 Voltage Dependency
			Ultracapacitor Stacking
	4.3 Ultracapacitor Electrical Models
		4.3.1 RC Serial Model
		4.3.2 First-Order Model for UC
	4.4 Methodology of UC Sizing
		4.4.1 Simple Sizing of UC
		4.4.2 Accurate Sizing
			Temperature Effect
		4.4.3 UC Sizing Using Artificial Neural Networks
	4.5 Case Study and Applications
		4.5.1 Results of Simple Sizing
		4.5.2 Results of Accurate Sizing
		4.5.3 Comparative Study Between Simple Sizing and Accurate Sizing of UC
		4.5.4 ANN Results for Detecting UC Suitable Type
	4.6 Summary
Chapter 5: Design and Sizing of Photovoltaic Power Systems
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Estimation of Total Solar Radiation on an Inclined Surface
		5.2.1 Estimation of Daily Beam Radiation ()
		5.2.2 Estimation of Ground Reflection Radiation ()
		5.2.3 Estimation of Diffused Sky Radiation ()
	5.3 Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) in Photovoltaic Power System
		5.3.1 Optimum Solar cells Area (OSCA) Estimation for PVPS
		5.3.2 Final Solar Cells Area Required
	5.4 Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)
		5.4.1 MPPT Algorithms Classification
			Neural Networks
	5.5 On-Grid Photovoltaic Power Systems
		5.5.1 DC-DC Converters
			Functions of DC-DC Converters
				The Buck (Step-Down) Converter
				The Boost (Step-Up) Converter
				Buck-Boost Converter
		5.5.2 Inverters
			Single-Phase Bridge Inverters
			Multi-Level Inverters
			Three-Phase Full-Bridge VSI
	5.6 General Control Grid-Connected PV Systems
	5.7 Results and Discussions
		5.7.1 Estimation of Hourly Radiation on Tilted Surfaces
			Radiation and Climate Data
		5.7.2 Estimation of the Optimum Number of Solar Panels
		5.7.3 Rates of Hydrogen Production and Usage in PVPS
		5.7.4 Final Solar Cells Area, FSCA, and the Number of Solar Panels
		5.7.5 ANN Results for Determining the Duty Cycle
	5.8 Summary
Chapter 6: Design and Sizing Wind Energy System
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Wind Turbines
		6.2.1 Basic Components of a Wind Turbine System
		6.2.2 Modeling of Wind Turbines
			Power Output from an Ideal Turbine
			Theoretical Maximum Power Extractable from the Wind
			Practical Power Extractable from the Wind and Power Coefficient
			Efficiency Considerations of Wind-Powered Electricity Generation
	6.3 Wind Parameter
		6.3.1 Wind Speed
		6.3.2 Wind Classes
		6.3.3 Wind Shear
		6.3.4 Weibull Distribution
		6.3.5 Wind Turbine Power Output
			Cut-in Wind Speed, uc
			Rated Wind Speed, ur
			Cut-Out Wind Speed, uf
	6.4 Average Power Output and Average Number of Wind Turbine Generators
	6.5 Design Algorithms
		6.5.1 Upgrading Wind Velocities to Hub Height
		6.5.2 Evolution of Weibull Parameter (C and K)
		6.5.3 Evolution of the Capacity Factor, CF, and ANWTG
		6.5.4 Energy Balance Study and the Optimum Number of WTG
	6.6 Stand-Alone (Off-Grid) Wind Power System
	6.7 On-Grid Wind Energy Systems
		6.7.1 AC/DC Converters (Rectifiers)
	6.8 Results and Discussions
		6.8.1 ANN Results for Determining Duty Cycle
	6.9 Summary
Chapter 7: Optimum Sizing and Design of Renewable Energy System
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Hybrid System Description
		7.2.1 The Load Demand Model
		7.2.2 Solar Panel
		7.2.3 Wind Turbine
		7.2.4 Regenerative Fuel Cell
		7.2.5 Ultracapacitor
		7.2.6 Converters and Controllers
		7.2.7 Energy Management and Operation Strategy
	7.3 System Cost Analysis
		7.3.1 Problem Statement
		7.3.2 Cost Estimation
	7.4 Methodology and Constraints
		7.4.1 PSO Optimization Algorithm
	7.5 Results and Discussions
		7.5.1 Analytic Methods
		7.5.2 PSO Results and Discussion
	7.6 Summary
Chapter 8: Conclusions and Recommendations for Future Work
	8.1 Discussions and Conclusions
References
Index