Human-Wildlife Interactions: From Conflict to Coexistence

Cover
Half Title
Title
Copyright
Contents
Author Bios
Preface
Chapter 1 Philosophy
	1.1 What Is Meant by the Term Wildlife Resource?
	1.2 What Is the North American Model of Wildlife Conservation?
	1.3 What Are the Alternatives to the North American Model of Wildlife Management and the Public Trust Doctrine?
	1.4 What Is the Tyranny of the Majority?
	1.5 Should Wildlife Be Managed for the Benefit of Wildlife or People?
	1.6 What Are the Goals of Wildlife Management?
	1.7 What Positive Values Are Provided by Wildlife?
	1.8 What Negative Values Are Provided by Wildlife?
	1.9 How Does Wildlife Damage Management Contribute to the Larger Field of Wildlife Management?
	1.10 Are There Alternative Definitions for Wildlife Damage Management?
	1.11 Is the Killing of Problem Animals Ethical?
	1.12 What Are the Necessary Ingredients for the Occurrence of Wildlife Damage?
	1.13 Who Is Legally Responsible for Wildlife Damage?
	1.14 What Lessons Did the International Union for Conservation of Nature Learn about Human–Wildlife Conflicts?
		1.14.1 Lesson 1: Human–Wildlife Conflicts Often Involve Human–Human Conflicts
		1.14.2 Lesson 2: Biology Is a Necessary Part of the Solution, but It Is Not Sufficient in Itself
		1.14.3 Lesson 3: Perceptions of Conflict Are Important, and Solutions Must Address Them
		1.14.4 Lesson 4: Global Insights and Local Variability Need to Be Balanced
		1.14.5 Lesson 5: Successful Responses Require the Use of Multiple and Adaptive Tools
		1.14.6 Lesson 6: Demonstrating Genuine Effort Is a Valuable First Step
	1.15 Why Worry about Human–Wildlife Conflicts?
	1.16 Summary
	1.17 Discussion Questions
	Literature Cited
Chapter 2 Threats to Human Safety
	2.1 Why Do Animals Attack People?
	2.2 How Often Are Humans Injured or Killed by Wildlife?
	2.3 Sharks
	2.4 Snakes
	2.5 Alligators, Crocodiles, and Caimans
	2.6 Rodents and Small Mammals
	2.7 Bears
	2.8 Coyotes, Wolves, and Other Canids
	2.9 Cougars, Lions, and Tigers
	2.10 Herbivores
	2.11 Primates
	2.12 Why Has There Been a Recent Increase in Wildlife Attacks on Humans in North America and Worldwide?
	2.13 Are Wildlife Attacks Caused by Wildlife or Humans?
	2.14 What Are the Consequences of Wildlife Attacks on Humans?
	2.15 How Many Human Injuries and Fatalities Result from Wildlife–Automobile Collisions?
	2.16 How Can the Number of Deer–Vehicle Collisions Be Reduced?
	2.17 How Many Human Injuries and Fatalities Result from Bird–Aircraft Collisions?
	2.18 Summary
	2.19 Discussion Questions
	Literature Cited
Chapter 3 Zoonotic Diseases
	3.1 Data Sources
	3.2 Leptospirosis
	3.3 Lyme Disease
	3.4 Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever
	3.5 Anaplasmosis and Ehrlichiosis
	3.6 Rabies
	3.7 Influenza
	3.8 West Nile Virus Disease
	3.9 Coronaviruses
	3.10 Hantaviruses
	3.11 Histoplasmosis
	3.12 Baylisascariasis or Raccoon Roundworms
	3.13 Schistosomiasis or Swimmer’s Itch
	3.14 Summary
	3.15 Discussion Questions
	Literature Cited
Chapter 4 Economics
	4.1 Why Is It Important to Have Economic Data About Human–Wildlife Conflicts?
	4.2 Can Economics Be Used to Assess the Value of Wildlife?
	4.3 How Can the Positive Values of Wildlife Be Measured?
		4.3.1 Money Spent
		4.3.2 Time Spent
		4.3.3 Willingness to Pay
		4.3.4 Willingness to Do Without
		4.3.5 Income-Producing Ability
		4.3.6 Increase in Property Values
	4.4 Who Should Be Surveyed to Determine the Economic Value of Wildlife?
	4.5 Can Losses to Wildlife Be Determined by Making a Direct Measurement of Loses?
	4.6 Can Energetic Models Help Determine Losses to Wildlife?
	4.7 Can Losses to Wildlife Be Determined by Surveying People?
	4.8 Are People’s Perceptions of Losses to Wildlife Accurate?
	4.9 What Is a Lost-Opportunity Cost?
	4.10 What Are Some Considerations Regarding the Economics of Wildlife Damage?
	4.11 How Much Wildlife Damage Is There in the United States and Worldwide?
		4.11.1 Deer–Automobile Collisions
		4.11.2 Bird–Aircraft Collisions
		4.11.3 Wildlife Damage to Households
		4.11.4 Wildlife Damage to the Timber Industry
			4.11.4.1 Southeast
			4.11.4.2 Northeast
			4.11.4.3 Northwest
		4.11.5 Wildlife Damage to Agricultural Production
	4.12 What Is the Total Economic Loss Due to Wildlife in the United States?
	4.13 Do High Levels of Wildlife Damage Mean that Wildlife Populations Are Too High?
	4.14 What Human–Wildlife Conflicts Occur in Other Countries?
		4.14.1 Central America and South America
		4.14.2 United Kingdom
		4.14.3 Europe
		4.14.4 Africa
		4.14.5 Asia
		4.14.6 Australia
	4.15 Summary
	4.16 Discussion Questions
	Literature Cited
Chapter 5 Exotic Species
	5.1 What Impacts Do Exotic Species Have on Native Flora and Fauna?
	5.2 What Is the Impact of Exotic Species on Hawaii?
	5.3 What Is the Impact of Exotic Species on Guam?
	5.4 What Is the Impact of Exotic Species on Australia?
	5.5 What Is the Impact of Exotic Species on North America?
	5.6 Can Environmental Problems Caused by Exotic Animals Be Resolved?
		5.6.1 Preventing Exotic Animals from Reaching Foreign Shores
		5.6.2 Preventing Exotic Animals from Establishing a Free-Ranging Population
		5.6.3 Eradicating Populations of Exotic Animals
	5.7 Can Populations of Exotic Species Be Reduced When Eradication Is Not an Option?
	5.8 Are There Unintended Consequences of Eradicating an Exotic Population?
	5.9 Can We Predict When an Exotic Species Will Cause Environment Damage?
		5.9.1 Which Sites Are Vulnerable to Invasion of Exotic Species?
		5.9.2 Which Animals Are Likely to Invade?
		5.9.3 When Is an Invasive Animal Likely to Establish a Free-Ranging Population?
	5.10 Can an Integrated Program Be Developed to Stop the Spread of Exotics to New Areas?
	5.11 Summary
	5.12 Discussion Questions
	Literature Cited
Chapter 6 Fear-Provoking Stimuli
	6.1 What Visual Stimuli Can Serve as Fear-Provoking Stimuli?
	6.2 What Auditory Stimuli Can Be Used as Fear-Provoking Stimuli?
		6.2.1 Exploders and Bangers
		6.2.2 Novel Sounds
		6.2.3 Distress Calls and Alarm Calls
		6.2.4 Sounds from Dominant or Aggressive Individuals
	6.3 Which Olfactory Stimuli Can Be Used as Fear-Provoking Stimuli?
	6.4 Can Punishment Alter an Animal’s Behavior?
	6.5 What Limits the Effectiveness of Fear-Provoking Stimuli?
	6.6 Can Habituation to Fear-Provoking Stimuli Be Delayed?
	6.7 Can Live Predators Serve as Fear-Provoking Stimuli?
	6.8 Are Guard Dogs Effective as Fear-Provoking Stimuli?
	6.9 What Is Hazing or Harassment?
	6.10 Is It Possible to Create a Landscape of Fear?
	6.11 Summary
	6.12 Discussion Questions
	Literature Cited
Chapter 7 Chemical Repellents
	7.1 How Do Plants Use Chemicals to Defend Themselves from Herbivores?
	7.2 Is There a Biological Basis for Food Preferences?
		7.2.1 Role of Olfaction in Shaping Food Preferences
		7.2.2 Role of Taste in Shaping Food Preferences
		7.2.3 Role of Tactile Stimuli in Shaping Food Preferences
		7.2.4 Role of Animal-Derived Substances in Shaping Food Preferences
		7.2.5 Role of Irritants in Shaping Food Preferences
		7.2.6 Role of Post-Ingestion Feedback in Shaping Food Preferences
		7.2.7 Role of Early-Life Experiences in Shaping Food Preferences
	7.3 What Types of Repellents Work Best
		7.3.1 Bear Spray
		7.3.2 Area Repellents
		7.3.3 Contact Repellents
		7.3.4 Systemic Repellents
	7.4 What Are the Benefits of Deception-Based Aversions?
	7.5 Is Batesian Mimicry Similar to Deception-Based Food Aversions?
		7.5.1 Precision of Mimicry
		7.5.2 Cost–Benefit Ratio
	7.6 What Factors Influence the Effectiveness of Repellents to Reduce Wildlife Damage?
	7.7 What Laws Govern the Use of Wildlife Repellents?
	7.8 Summary
	7.9 Discussion Questions
	Literature Cited
Chapter 8 Exclusion
	8.1 What Influences the Cost-Effectiveness of Fencing to Reduce Human–Wildlife Conflicts?
	8.2 What Types of Fences Are Used to Exclude Deer and Other Mammals?
		8.2.1 Chain-Link and Woven-Wire Fencing
		8.2.2 Electric Fencing
	8.3 Can Fences Reduce Deer–Vehicle Collisions?
	8.4 Can Invisible Fences Reduce Wildlife Damage?
	8.5 Can Fences Keep Elephants Out of Agricultural Fields?
	8.6 Can Fences Protect Livestock from Predators?
	8.7 Can Exclusion Keep Nests Safe from Predators?
	8.8 Can Barriers Protect Individual Trees from Herbivores?
	8.9 Can Beavers Be Stopped from Rebuilding Their Dams?
	8.10 Can a Trap-Barrier System Reduce Rat Damage in Rice Fields?
	8.11 Can Bird Damage Be Reduced Using Netting or Overhead Wires?
	8.12 Can Raptors and Corvids Be Kept Away from Power Lines?
	8.13 Can Nuisance Animals Be Kept Out of Trash?
	8.14 Can Buildings Be Made Wildlife Proof?
	8.15 What Are the Limitations of Using Exclusion?
	8.16 Summary
	8.17 Discussion Questions
	Literature Cited
Chapter 9 Diversion
	9.1 What Is the Optimal Foraging Theory?
	9.2 Is Large Group Formation a Natural Form of Diversion?
	9.3 Can Diversion Mitigate Wildlife Damage to Agriculture?
	9.4 Can Diversion Reduce Wildlife Damage to Timber?
	9.5 Can Wildlife Be Protected through Diversion?
	9.6 Can Diversion Be Used to Reduce Ungulate–Vehicle Collisions?
	9.7 Can Habitat Modification Be Used to Create a Food Diversion?
	9.8 How Do Wildlife Respond to Supplemental Food?
	9.9 What Problems Arise with Diversionary Feeding of Wildlife?
	9.10 Is Diversion Cost-Effective?
	9.11 Where Should a Feeder Station or Diversionary Crop Be Located?
	9.12 Can Wildlife Damage Be Predicted?
	9.13 Which Is Better: Diversionary Crops or Feeder Stations?
	9.14 What Is Predator Swamping?
	9.15 Can Diversion Be Used with Other Techniques?
	9.16 Summary
	9.17 Discussion Questions
	Literature Cited
Chapter 10 Habitat Manipulation
	10.1 Can Human–Wildlife Conflicts Be Mitigated by Modifying the Resource?
	10.2 Can Wildlife Damage to Crops Be Mitigated by Modifying the Habitat in or around the Resource?
	10.3 Can Wildlife Damage to Crops Be Reduced by Changing Agronomical Techniques?
	10.4 Can Livestock Losses to Predators Be Reduced through Husbandry Practices?
	10.5 How Can Buildings Be Made Bird and Rodent Proof?
	10.6 Can Habitat Be Modified to Increase an Animal’s Fear of a Site?
	10.7 Can Human–Wildlife Conflicts Be Reduced at the Landscape Level?
		10.7.1 Avoiding Damage by Clustering Vulnerable Resources Together
		10.7.2 Reducing Damage by Managing Distant Bird Colonies and Roosts
		10.7.3 Reducing Damage by Managing Distant Refugia
	10.8 Summary
	10.9 Discussion Questions
	Literature Cited
Chapter 11 Wildlife Translocation
	11.1 Do Translocated Animals Return to Their Capture Site?
	11.2 Do New Animals Replace the Translocated Ones So that the Problem Persists?
	11.3 Do Translocated Animals Create the Same Problems Elsewhere?
	11.4 What Happens to Translocated Animals?
	11.5 What Are the Consequences of Translocation on Resident Wildlife at the Release Site?
		11.5.1 Competitive Interactions
		11.5.2 Disease Pathogens and Parasite Transmission
		11.5.3 Reproduction and Population Genetics
	11.6 Is Translocation Cost-Effective?
	11.7 When Is Translocation Warranted?
	11.8 Summary
	11.9 Discussion Questions
	Literature Cited
Chapter 12 Fertility Control
	12.1 Can Surgery or Mechanical Methods Reduce Fertility in Wildlife?
	12.2 Can Synthetic Hormones Disrupt Endocrine Regulation?
	12.3 Can Normal Reproduction Be Disrupted Using Antigens?
	12.4 How Can Infertility Drugs Be Administered to Wildlife?
	12.5 Does the Type of Mating System Influence Contraception?
	12.6 What Are Some Uses of Contraception in Wildlife?
		12.6.1 Elephants
		12.6.2 Deer
		12.6.3 Equids
		12.6.4 Rodents
			12.6.4.1 Marsupials
	12.7 What Are the Drawbacks with Wildlife Contraception?
	12.8 What Is the Public’s Perception of Using Fertility Control in Wildlife?
	12.9 What Laws Govern the Use of Fertility Control to Manage Wildlife?
	12.10 Summary
	12.11 Discussion Questions
	Literature Cited
Chapter 13 Lethal Control
	13.1 What Is the Intrinsic Growth Rate of a Wildlife Population?
	13.2 What Effect Does Lethal Control Have on a Wildlife Population’s Birth and Mortality Rates?
	13.3 What Effect Does Lethal Control Have on the Immigration Rate of Wildlife?
	13.4 Is There a Correlation Between Wildlife Population Levels and Wildlife Damage?
	13.5 Do the Benefits and Liabilities of Wildlife Change as Wildlife Populations Increase?
	13.6 Should Lethal Techniques Be Directed at Specific Individuals, Specific Subpopulations, or the Entire Population?
	13.7 Can Lethal Methods Create a Landscape of Fear Among Problem Animals?
	13.8 Are Lethal Methods Legal?
	13.9 Are Lethal Methods Effective at Reducing Wildlife Damage?
	13.10 Are Lethal Techniques Cost-Effective?
	13.11 Should Predator Control Be Directed at a Single Species or Multiple Species?
	13.12 Should Lethal Methods Be Used Preemptively to Prevent a Conflict or Only after Damage Has Begun?
	13.13 What Risk Do Traps Pose to Nontarget Species?
	13.14 Can Toxicants Be Employed without Posing a Risk to Nontarget Species?
	13.15 Does Culling Apex Predators or Keystone Herbivores Produce a Trophic Cascade?
	13.16 Are Lethal Techniques Ethical, Humane, and Socially Acceptable?
	13.17 What Methods Are Used in Lethal Control?
		13.17.1 Recreational Hunting
		13.17.2 Leg-Hold Traps
		13.17.3 Killing Traps and Snares
		13.17.4 Use of Judas Animals to Reduce or Eradicate Populations of Invasive Species
		13.17.5 Toxicants
		13.17.6 Bounties
		13.17.7 Diseases and Parasites
	13.18 Summary
	13.19 Discussion Questions
	Literature Cited
Chapter 14 Human Dimensions
	14.1 How Does Society Respond to Wildlife Damage?
	14.2 What Are Stakeholder Perceptions of Human–Wildlife Conflicts?
		14.2.1 Farmers, Ranchers, and Private Landowners
		14.2.2 Hunters and Fur Trappers
		14.2.3 Wildlife Enthusiasts
		14.2.4 Animal Welfare Supporters
		14.2.5 Animal Rights Supporters
		14.2.6 Metropolitan Residents
		14.2.7 Rural Residents
	14.3 Why Are People’s Perceptions of Risk Important?
	14.4 What Impact Do Human–Wildlife Conflicts Have on a Person’s Attitudes Toward Wildlife?
	14.5 What Is the Concept of Cultural Carrying Capacity?
	14.6 Why Is the Management of Human–Wildlife Conflicts So Controversial?
	14.7 How Are Policy Decisions Regarding Human–Wildlife Conflicts Made?
	14.8 How Can Partnerships Be Built between Wildlife Agencies and the Victims of Human–Wildlife Conflicts?
	14.9 Can Human–Wildlife Conflicts Be Mitigated through the Human Dimension?
	14.10 Can Human–Wildlife Conflicts Be Resolved by Changing Human Behavior?
	14.11 Can Human–Wildlife Conflicts Be Alleviated by Increasing the Victim’s Appreciation of Wildlife?
	14.12 Can Tolerance of Human–Wildlife Conflicts Be Increased through Education?
	14.13 Can Tolerance of Human–Wildlife Conflicts Be Increased Using Compensation?
	14.14 Summary
	14.15 Discussion Questions
	Literature Cited
Appendix
Species Index
Subject Index