Human physiology

Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 2
Copyright......Page 3
Contents......Page 15
Preface......Page 6
CHAPTER 1 The Study of Body Function......Page 24
Scientific Method......Page 25
History of Physiology......Page 27
Negative Feedback Loops......Page 29
Neural and Endocrine Regulation......Page 31
Feedback Control of Hormone Secretion......Page 32
Muscle Tissue......Page 33
Nervous Tissue......Page 34
Epithelial Tissue......Page 35
Connective Tissue......Page 39
An Example of an Organ: The Skin......Page 41
Body-Fluid Compartments......Page 43
Summary......Page 44
Review Activities......Page 45
CHAPTER 2 Chemical Composition of the Body......Page 47
Atoms......Page 48
Chemical Bonds, Molecules, and Ionic Compounds......Page 49
Acids, Bases, and the pH Scale......Page 52
Organic Molecules......Page 53
Carbohydrates......Page 56
Lipids......Page 59
2.3 Proteins......Page 63
Structure of Proteins......Page 64
Functions of Proteins......Page 66
Deoxyribonucleic Acid......Page 67
Ribonucleic Acid......Page 68
Summary......Page 70
Review Activities......Page 71
CHAPTER 3 Cell Structure and Genetic Control......Page 73
3.1 Plasma Membrane and Associated Structures......Page 74
Structure of the Plasma Membrane......Page 75
Phagocytosis......Page 77
Endocytosis......Page 78
Cilia and Flagella......Page 79
Cytoplasm and Cytoskeleton......Page 80
Lysosomes......Page 81
Mitochondria......Page 82
Endoplasmic Reticulum......Page 83
Golgi Complex......Page 84
3.3 Cell Nucleus and Gene Expression......Page 85
Chromatin......Page 86
RNA Synthesis......Page 87
3.4 Protein Synthesis and Secretion......Page 90
Formation of a Polypeptide......Page 92
Functions of the Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Complex......Page 93
Protein Degradation......Page 94
DNA Replication......Page 95
The Cell Cycle......Page 96
Mitosis......Page 99
Meiosis......Page 101
Epigenetic Inheritance......Page 103
Interactions......Page 105
Summary......Page 106
Review Activities......Page 108
CHAPTER 4 Enzymes and Energy......Page 110
Mechanism of Enzyme Action......Page 111
Naming of Enzymes......Page 113
Effects of Temperature and pH......Page 114
Cofactors and Coenzymes......Page 115
Substrate Concentration and Reversible Reactions......Page 116
Metabolic Pathways......Page 117
4.3 Bioenergetics......Page 119
Coupled Reactions: ATP......Page 120
Coupled Reactions: Oxidation-Reduction......Page 121
Summary......Page 124
Review Activities......Page 126
CHAPTER 5 Cell Respiration and Metabolism......Page 128
Glycolysis......Page 129
Lactic Acid Pathway......Page 131
Cori Cycle......Page 133
Krebs Cycle......Page 135
Coupling of Electron Transport to ATP Production......Page 136
ATP Balance Sheet......Page 138
5.3 Metabolism of Lipids and Proteins......Page 140
Lipid Metabolism......Page 141
Amino Acid Metabolism......Page 143
Uses of Different Energy Sources......Page 145
Interactions......Page 147
Summary......Page 148
Review Activities......Page 149
CHAPTER 6 Interactions Between Cells and the Extracellular Environment......Page 151
Body Fluids......Page 152
Categories of Transport Across the Plasma Membrane......Page 153
6.2 Diffusion and Osmosis......Page 154
Diffusion Through the Plasma Membrane......Page 156
Osmosis......Page 157
Regulation of Blood Osmolality......Page 162
6.3 Carrier-Mediated Transport......Page 163
Facilitated Diffusion......Page 164
Active Transport......Page 165
Bulk Transport......Page 168
6.4 The Membrane Potential......Page 169
Equilibrium Potentials......Page 170
Resting Membrane Potential......Page 172
6.5 Cell Signaling......Page 174
G-Proteins......Page 175
Interactions......Page 177
Summary......Page 178
Review Activities......Page 180
CHAPTER 7 The Nervous System: Neurons and Synapses......Page 183
Neurons......Page 184
Classification of Neurons and Nerves......Page 186
Supporting Cells......Page 187
Neurilemma and Myelin Sheath......Page 188
Functions of Astrocytes......Page 191
7.2 Electrical Activity in Axons......Page 193
Ion Gating in Axons......Page 194
Action Potentials......Page 195
Conduction of Nerve Impulses......Page 199
7.3 The Synapse......Page 201
Chemical Synapses......Page 202
7.4 Acetylcholine as a Neurotransmitter......Page 205
Chemically Regulated Channels......Page 206
Acetylcholine in the PNS......Page 209
Acetylcholine in the CNS......Page 210
7.5 Monoamines as Neurotransmitters......Page 211
Serotonin as a Neurotransmitter......Page 213
Norepinephrine as a Neurotransmitter......Page 214
Amino Acids as Neurotransmitters......Page 215
Polypeptides as Neurotransmitters......Page 216
Nitric Oxide and Carbon Monoxide as Neurotransmitters......Page 218
7.7 Synaptic Integration......Page 219
Synaptic Plasticity......Page 220
Synaptic Inhibition......Page 221
Summary......Page 222
Review Activities......Page 223
CHAPTER 8 The Central Nervous System......Page 226
8.1 Structural Organization of the Brain......Page 227
Cerebral Cortex......Page 229
Basal Nuclei......Page 234
Cerebral Lateralization......Page 235
Language......Page 237
Limbic System and Emotion......Page 239
Memory......Page 240
Emotion and Memory......Page 244
Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland......Page 245
Midbrain......Page 248
Hindbrain......Page 249
Reticular Activating System......Page 250
8.5 Spinal Cord Tracts......Page 251
Descending Tracts......Page 252
Spinal Nerves......Page 255
Summary......Page 258
Review Activities......Page 260
CHAPTER 9 The Autonomic Ner vous System......Page 262
Autonomic Neurons......Page 263
Visceral Effector Organs......Page 264
Sympathetic Division......Page 265
Parasympathetic Division......Page 266
Adrenergic and Cholinergic Synaptic Transmission......Page 270
Responses to Adrenergic Stimulation......Page 272
Responses to Cholinergic Stimulation......Page 275
Organs with Dual Innervation......Page 277
Organs Without Dual Innervation......Page 279
Control of the Autonomic Nervous System by Higher Brain Centers......Page 280
Interactions......Page 282
Summary......Page 283
Review Activities......Page 284
CHAPTER 10 Sensory Physiology......Page 286
Categories of Sensory Receptors......Page 287
Law of Specific Nerve Energies......Page 288
Generator (Receptor) Potential......Page 289
10.2 Cutaneous Sensations......Page 290
Neural Pathways for Somatesthetic Sensations......Page 291
Receptive Fields and Sensory Acuity......Page 292
Lateral Inhibition......Page 293
Taste......Page 294
Smell......Page 296
10.4 Vestibular Apparatus and Equilibrium......Page 298
Utricle and Saccule......Page 299
Semicircular Canals......Page 301
Middle Ear......Page 302
Cochlea......Page 304
Spiral Organ (Organ of Corti)......Page 305
10.6 The Eyes and Vision......Page 309
Refraction......Page 312
Accommodation......Page 313
Visual Acuity......Page 314
10.7 Retina......Page 316
Effect of Light on the Rods......Page 318
Electrical Activity of Retinal Cells......Page 319
Visual Acuity and Sensitivity......Page 321
Neural Pathways from the Retina......Page 322
Lateral Geniculate Nuclei......Page 325
Cerebral Cortex......Page 326
Interactions......Page 327
Summary......Page 328
Review Activities......Page 331
CHAPTER 11 Endocrine Glands: Secretion and Action of Hormones......Page 334
11.1 Endocrine Glands and Hormones......Page 335
Chemical Classification of Hormones......Page 337
Prohormones and Prehormones......Page 338
Hormone Interactions......Page 339
Effects of Hormone Concentrations on Tissue Response......Page 340
Hormones That Bind to Nuclear Receptor Proteins......Page 341
Hormones That Use Second Messengers......Page 344
Pituitary Hormones......Page 350
Hypothalamic Control of the Anterior Pituitary......Page 352
Feedback Control of the Anterior Pituitary......Page 353
Higher Brain Function and Pituitary Secretion......Page 355
11.4 Adrenal Glands......Page 356
Functions of the Adrenal Cortex......Page 357
Functions of the Adrenal Medulla......Page 358
Stress and the Adrenal Gland......Page 359
Production and Action of Thyroid Hormones......Page 360
Parathyroid Glands......Page 363
Pancreatic Islets (Islets of Langerhans)......Page 364
Pineal Gland......Page 366
11.7 Autocrine and Paracrine Regulation......Page 368
Examples of Autocrine Regulation......Page 369
Prostaglandins......Page 370
Interactions......Page 373
Summary......Page 374
Review Activities......Page 375
CHAPTER 12 Muscle: Mechanisms of Contraction and Neural Control......Page 378
Structure of Skeletal Muscles......Page 379
Motor Units......Page 380
12.2 Mechanisms of Contraction......Page 383
Sliding Filament Theory of Contraction......Page 385
Regulation of Contraction......Page 389
Twitch, Summation, and Tetanus......Page 393
Types of Muscle Contractions......Page 394
Length-Tension Relationship......Page 395
12.4 Energy Requirements of Skeletal Muscles......Page 396
Metabolism of Skeletal Muscles......Page 397
Slow- and Fast-Twitch Fibers......Page 399
Muscle Fatigue......Page 400
Adaptations of Muscles to Exercise Training......Page 401
Muscle Damage and Repair......Page 402
12.5 Neural Control of Skeletal Muscles......Page 403
Muscle Spindle Apparatus......Page 404
Coactivation of Alpha and Gamma Motoneurons......Page 405
Skeletal Muscle Reflexes......Page 406
Upper Motor Neuron Control of Skeletal Muscles......Page 408
Cardiac Muscle......Page 410
Smooth Muscle......Page 411
Interactions......Page 417
Summary......Page 418
Review Activities......Page 421
CHAPTER 13 Blood, Heart, and Circulation......Page 423
Functions of the Circulatory System......Page 424
13.2 Composition of the Blood......Page 425
Plasma......Page 426
The Formed Elements of Blood......Page 427
Hematopoiesis......Page 428
Red Blood Cell Antigens and Blood Typing......Page 431
Blood Clotting......Page 433
Dissolution of Clots......Page 436
Pulmonary and Systemic Circulations......Page 437
Heart Sounds......Page 438
13.4 Cardiac Cycle......Page 441
13.5 Electrical Activity of the Heart and the Electrocardiogram......Page 442
Electrical Activity of the Heart......Page 443
The Electrocardiogram......Page 447
Arteries......Page 450
Capillaries......Page 452
Veins......Page 453
Atherosclerosis......Page 455
Arrhythmias Detected by the Electrocardiograph......Page 458
13.8 Lymphatic System......Page 460
Summary......Page 463
Review Activities......Page 465
CHAPTER 14 Cardiac Output, Blood Flow, and Blood Pressure......Page 467
Regulation of Cardiac Rate......Page 468
Regulation of Stroke Volume......Page 469
Venous Return......Page 472
14.2 Blood Volume......Page 473
Exchange of Fluid Between Capillaries and Tissues......Page 474
Regulation of Blood Volume by the Kidneys......Page 476
14.3 Vascular Resistance to Blood Flow......Page 479
Physical Laws Describing Blood Flow......Page 480
Extrinsic Regulation of Blood Flow......Page 482
Intrinsic Regulation of Blood Flow......Page 484
Regulation of Coronary Blood Flow......Page 485
Regulation of Blood Flow Through Skeletal Muscles......Page 486
Circulatory Changes During Exercise......Page 487
14.5 Blood Flow to the Brain and Skin......Page 489
Cerebral Circulation......Page 490
Cutaneous Blood Flow......Page 491
14.6 Blood Pressure......Page 492
Baroreceptor Reflex......Page 493
Measurement of Blood Pressure......Page 495
Pulse Pressure and Mean Arterial Pressure......Page 498
Hypertension......Page 499
Circulatory Shock......Page 501
Congestive Heart Failure......Page 503
Interactions......Page 504
Summary......Page 505
Review Activities......Page 507
CHAPTER 15 The Immune System......Page 509
15.1 Defense Mechanisms......Page 510
Innate (Nonspecific) Immunity......Page 511
Adaptive (Specific) Immunity......Page 513
Lymphocytes and Lymphoid Organs......Page 515
Local Inflammation......Page 516
15.2 Functions of B Lymphocytes......Page 518
Antibodies......Page 519
The Complement System......Page 521
Killer, Helper, and Regulatory T Lymphocytes......Page 523
Interactions Between Antigen-Presenting Cells and T Lymphocytes......Page 527
15.4 Active and Passive Immunity......Page 530
Active Immunity and the Clonal Selection Theory......Page 531
Passive Immunity......Page 533
15.5 Tumor Immunology......Page 534
Natural Killer Cells......Page 535
Effects of Aging and Stress......Page 536
Autoimmunity......Page 537
Immune Complex Diseases......Page 538
Allergy......Page 539
Interactions......Page 542
Summary......Page 543
Review Activities......Page 545
CHAPTER 16 Respiratory Physiology......Page 547
Structure of the Respiratory System......Page 548
Thoracic Cavity......Page 551
16.2 Physical Aspects of Ventilation......Page 552
Physical Properties of the Lungs......Page 553
Surfactant and Respiratory Distress Syndrome......Page 555
16.3 Mechanics of Breathing......Page 556
Inspiration and Expiration......Page 557
Pulmonary Function Tests......Page 558
Pulmonary Disorders......Page 560
16.4 Gas Exchange in the Lungs......Page 562
Calculation of P[sub(O)][sub(2)]......Page 563
Partial Pressures of Gases in Blood......Page 564
Significance of Blood P[sub(O)][sub(2)] and P[sub(CO)][sub(2)] Measurements......Page 565
Pulmonary Circulation and Ventilation/Perfusion Ratios......Page 567
Disorders Caused by High Partial Pressures of Gases......Page 568
Brain Stem Respiratory Centers......Page 569
Effects of Blood P[sub(CO)][sub(2)] and pH on Ventilation......Page 570
Effects of Blood P[sub(O)[sub(2)] on Ventilation......Page 572
Effects of Pulmonary Receptors on Ventilation......Page 573
16.6 Hemoglobin and Oxygen Transport......Page 574
Hemoglobin......Page 575
The Oxyhemoglobin Dissociation Curve......Page 576
Effect of pH and Temperature on Oxygen Transport......Page 577
Effect of 2,3-DPG on Oxygen Transport......Page 578
Inherited Defects in Hemoglobin Structure and Function......Page 579
Muscle Myoglobin......Page 580
The Chloride Shift......Page 581
16.8 Acid-Base Balance of the Blood......Page 582
Principles of Acid-Base Balance......Page 583
Ventilation and Acid-Base Balance......Page 584
Ventilation During Exercise......Page 585
Acclimatization to High Altitude......Page 586
Interactions......Page 590
Summary......Page 591
Review Activities......Page 594
CHAPTER 17 Physiology of the Kidneys......Page 597
Gross Structure of the Urinary System......Page 598
Control of Micturition......Page 599
Microscopic Structure of the Kidney......Page 600
17.2 Glomerular Filtration......Page 603
Glomerular Ultrafiltrate......Page 604
Regulation of Glomerular Filtration Rate......Page 605
17.3 Reabsorption of Salt and Water......Page 606
Reabsorption in the Proximal Tubule......Page 607
The Countercurrent Multiplier System......Page 608
Collecting Duct: Effect of Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)......Page 611
17.4 Renal Plasma Clearance......Page 614
Transport Process Affecting Renal Clearance......Page 615
Renal Clearance of Inulin: Measurement of GFR......Page 616
Clearance of PAH: Measurement of Renal Blood Flow......Page 618
Reabsorption of Glucose......Page 619
17.5 Renal Control of Electrolyte and Acid-Base Balance......Page 620
Role of Aldosterone in Na[sup(+)]/K[sup(+)] Balance......Page 621
Control of Aldosterone Secretion......Page 622
Atrial Natriuretic Peptide......Page 623
Relationship Between Na[sup(+)], K[sup(+)], and H[sup(+)]......Page 624
Renal Acid-Base Regulation......Page 625
Use of Diuretics......Page 627
Renal Function Tests and Kidney Disease......Page 628
Interactions......Page 630
Summary......Page 631
Review Activities......Page 632
CHAPTER 18 The Digestive System......Page 635
18.1 Introduction to the Digestive System......Page 636
Layers of the Gastrointestinal Tract......Page 637
Regulation of the Gastrointestinal Tract......Page 638
18.2 From Mouth to Stomach......Page 639
Stomach......Page 640
Pepsin and Hydrochloric Acid Secretion......Page 641
18.3 Small Intestine......Page 644
Intestinal Enzymes......Page 645
Intestinal Contractions and Motility......Page 646
18.4 Large Intestine......Page 648
Intestinal Microbiota......Page 649
Defecation......Page 650
Structure of the Liver......Page 651
Functions of the Liver......Page 653
Gallbladder......Page 656
Pancreas......Page 657
Regulation of Gastric Function......Page 660
Regulation of Pancreatic Juice and Bile Secretion......Page 663
18.7 Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates, Lipids, and Proteins......Page 665
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates......Page 666
Digestion and Absorption of Lipids......Page 667
Interactions......Page 671
Summary......Page 672
Review Activities......Page 674
CHAPTER 19 Regulation of Metabolism......Page 677
Metabolic Rate and Caloric Requirements......Page 678
Anabolic Requirements......Page 679
Vitamins and Minerals......Page 680
Free Radicals and Antioxidants......Page 684
19.2 Regulation of Energy Metabolism......Page 685
Regulatory Functions of Adipose Tissue......Page 686
Regulation of Hunger and Metabolic Rate......Page 688
Caloric Expenditures......Page 690
Hormonal Regulation of Metabolism......Page 692
19.3 Energy Regulation by the Pancreatic Islets......Page 693
Regulation of Insulin and Glucagon Secretion......Page 694
Insulin and Glucagon: Postabsorptive State......Page 695
19.4 Diabetes Mellitus and Hypoglycemia......Page 697
Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus......Page 698
Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus......Page 699
Hypoglycemia......Page 701
Thyroxine......Page 702
Growth Hormone......Page 704
Bone Deposition and Resorption......Page 706
Hormonal Regulation of Bone......Page 708
1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D[sub(3)]......Page 709
Negative Feedback Control of Calcium and Phosphate Balance......Page 711
Summary......Page 713
Review Activities......Page 714
CHAPTER 20 Reproduction......Page 717
Sex Determination......Page 718
Development of Accessory Sex Organs and External Genitalia......Page 721
Disorders of Embryonic Sexual Development......Page 722
Interactions Between the Hypothalamus, Pituitary Gland, and Gonads......Page 725
Onset of Puberty......Page 726
Human Sexual Response......Page 728
20.3 Male Reproductive System......Page 729
Control of Gonadotropin Secretion......Page 730
Endocrine Functions of the Testes......Page 731
Spermatogenesis......Page 732
Male Accessory Sex Organs......Page 735
Erection, Emission, and Ejaculation......Page 736
Male Fertility......Page 738
20.4 Female Reproductive System......Page 739
Ovarian Cycle......Page 740
Ovulation......Page 743
20.5 Menstrual Cycle......Page 744
Phases of the Menstrual Cycle: Cyclic Changes in the Ovaries......Page 745
Cyclic Changes in the Endometrium......Page 748
Contraceptive Methods......Page 749
20.6 Fertilization, Pregnancy, and Parturition......Page 751
Fertilization......Page 752
Cleavage and Blastocyst Formation......Page 754
Implantation of the Blastocyst and Formation of the Placenta......Page 757
Exchange of Molecules Across the Placenta......Page 759
Endocrine Functions of the Placenta......Page 760
Labor and Parturition......Page 761
Lactation......Page 762
Concluding Remarks......Page 766
Interactions......Page 767
Summary......Page 768
Review Activities......Page 770
Appendix: Answers to Test Your Knowledge Questions......Page 774
Glossary......Page 776
Credits......Page 798
Index......Page 800