Human Pathogenic Microbes: Diseases and Concerns

Human Pathogenic Microbes: DISEASES AND CONCERNS
Copyright
List of contributors
Preface
Acknowledgments
Glossary
Abbreviation list
1. Human pathogenic microbes (bacterial and fungal) and associated diseases
	1.1 Introduction
		1.1.1 Modes of transmission
	1.2 Human–pathogen interaction
	1.3 Human pathogenic fungal microorganisms
		1.3.1 Candida species
		1.3.2 Aspergillus species
		1.3.3 Cryptococcus species
	1.4 Human pathogenic fungal diseases
		1.4.1 Candidiasis
		1.4.2 Aspergillosis
		1.4.3 Cryptococcosis
	1.5 Human pathogenic bacterial microorganisms
		1.5.1 Mycobacterium tuberculosis
		1.5.2 Vibrio cholera
		1.5.3 Staphylococcus aureus
	1.6 Human pathogenic bacterial diseases
		1.6.1 Tuberculosis (TB)
		1.6.2 Cholera
		1.6.3 Streptococcus pneumoniae and other associated infections
	1.7 Summary and future perspectives
	References
2. Evolution of antimicrobial drug resistance in human pathogenic bacteria
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Current status of resistance to antibacterial drugs
	2.3 Surveillance of antibacterial resistance/tolerance
	2.4 Molecular mechanisms of antimicrobial drug resistance in human pathogenic bacteria
	2.5 Resistance to antibacterial drugs in selected bacteria of international concern
		2.5.1 Escherichia coli—resistance to third-generation cephalosporins and fluoroquinolones
		2.5.2 Klebsiella pneumoniae—resistance to third-generation cephalosporins and to carbapenems
		2.5.3 Staphylococcus aureus—resistance to methicillin
		2.5.4 Streptococcus pneumoniae—resistance (nonsusceptibility) to penicillin
		2.5.5 Nontyphoidal salmonella-resistance to fluoroquinolones
		2.5.6 Shigella species—resistance to fluoroquinolones
		2.5.7 Neisseria gonorrhoeae-decreased susceptibility to third-generation cephalosporins
	2.6 Economic burden of antibacterial resistance and its impacts on human health
		2.6.1 Health burden
		2.6.2 Economic burden
	2.7 Surveillance of antimicrobial drug resistance in disease-specific programs
		2.7.1 Surveillance of drug-resistant tuberculosis
		2.7.2 Surveillance of antimalarial therapeutic efficacy and resistance
		2.7.3 Surveillance of anti-HIV drug resistance
		2.7.4 Surveillance of anti-influenza drug resistance
	2.8 Evolution of drug resistance in mycobacterium tuberclosis
		2.8.1 Global public health response to drug-resistant tuberclosis
	2.9 Future perspectives
	References
3. Evolution of antimicrobial drug resistance in human pathogenic fungi
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Molecular mechanisms governing antimicrobial drug resistance phenomenon in the human pathogenic fungi
		3.2.1 Transport alteration: drug efflux via overexpression/activation of membrane transporters
		3.2.2 Target alteration: altered ergosterol biosynthesis
		3.2.3 Genomic alterations/genomic plasticity
		3.2.4 Development/formation of complex structures; biofilms
			3.2.4.1 Candida biofilms
			3.2.4.2 Aspergillus biofilms
			3.2.4.3 Cryptococcus biofilms
	3.3 Conclusions
	References
4. Combating human bacterial infections: need for new antibacterial drugs and therapeutics
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Common human bacterial infections
	4.3 Salmonellosis
		4.3.1 Pathogenesis and virulence
		4.3.2 Symptoms of salmonellosis
		4.3.3 Source
		4.3.4 Transmission
		4.3.5 Clinical manifestation and pathophysiology of salmonellosis
			4.3.5.1 Gastroenteritis
			4.3.5.2 Bacteremia and endovascular infections
			4.3.5.3 Localized infections
		4.3.6 Diagnosis and treatment
		4.3.7 Prevention and control
			4.3.7.1 Surveillance systems
	4.4 Tuberculosis
		4.4.1 Clinical manifestation, testing and diagnosis
		4.4.2 Pathophysiology
		4.4.3 Prevention and control
	4.5 Cholera
		4.5.1 Cause and mechanism
		4.5.2 Diagnosis and treatment
		4.5.3 Prevention and control
	4.6 Development of new antimicrobial agents
	4.7 Future perspectives
	References
	Further reading
5. Combating human fungal infections: need for new antifungal drugs and therapies
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Different classes of antifungals
		5.2.1 Ergosterol biosynthesis inhibitors
			5.2.1.1 Azoles
			5.2.1.2 Allylamines
			5.2.1.3 Morpholines
		5.2.2 Fungal cell membrane disruptors
		5.2.3 Fungal cell wall synthesis
		5.2.4 Chitin synthesis inhibitors
		5.2.5 Nucleic acid synthesis inhibitors
		5.2.6 Protein biosynthesis inhibitors
	5.3 Need for new antifungal drugs and therapies
	5.4 Potential alternative antifungals to combat drug resistance in pathogenic fungi
		5.4.1 Novel triazoles as potential antifungals
		5.4.2 Peptides as promising antifungals
		5.4.3 Medicinal plants as potential antifungals
		5.4.4 Nanoparticles as potential antifungal agents
	5.5 Future perspectives
	References
6. Significance of immunotherapy for human bacterial diseases and antibacterial drug discovery
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Immunotherapy and its types
		6.2.1 Specific active immunotherapy
		6.2.2 Nonspecific active immunotherapy
		6.2.3 Passive immunotherapy
	6.3 Immunotherapies for bacterial infections
		6.3.1 Vaccines
		6.3.2 Monoclonal antibody therapy
		6.3.3 Checkpoint inhibition
			6.3.3.1 Programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1)
			6.3.3.2 T-cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain-containing protein 3 (Tim-3)
			6.3.3.3 TIGIT
		6.3.4 T-cell-based immunotherapies
		6.3.5 Cytokine therapy
			6.3.5.1 TNF-α
			6.3.5.2 TGF-β
		6.3.6 Cellular therapies
	6.4 Emerging technologies against bacterial pathogens
	6.5 Adjuvant immunotherapies as novel strategies to bacterial infection
		6.5.1 Innate immune detection of microbial infections
		6.5.2 Broad innate immune stimulation: targeting TLRs and NODs, among other PRRs
			6.5.2.1 Tolllike receptors
			6.5.2.2 Nucleotide oligomerization domains (NODs)
			6.5.2.3 Other PRRs
	6.6 Development of therapeutic antibodies
	6.7 Future perspectives
	References
	Further readings
7. Significance of immunotherapy for human fungal diseases and antifungal drug discovery
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Human fungal infections
		7.2.1 Candidiasis
			7.2.1.1 Diagnosis and prevention of invasive candidiasis
				7.2.1.1.1 Diagnosis
			7.2.1.2 Prevention of invasive candidiasis
				7.2.1.2.1 Antifungal prophylaxis
		7.2.2 Aspergillosis
		7.2.3 Cryptococcosis
	7.3 Potential immunotherapies for fungal diseases
	7.4 Different immunotherapeutic approaches against human fungal infections
		7.4.1 Recombinant cytokine therapy
			7.4.1.1 Colony stimulating factors in activation and enrichment of neutrophils
			7.4.1.2 Recombinant human IFN-γ as an immunotherapy
		7.4.2 Antibodies as immunotherapy
		7.4.3 Vaccines as immunotherapeutic approach
		7.4.4 Dendritic cells as immunotherapeutic approach
		7.4.5 Adoptive T-cell transfer
		7.4.6 B-cell and natural killer cell treatments
		7.4.7 Antimicrobial peptides as immunotherapy against fungal diseases
	7.5 Advantages of immunotherapies for fungal diseases
		7.5.1 Advantages of T-cell immunotherapies
		7.5.2 Advantages of antibodies used as immunotherapy
		7.5.3 Advantages of vaccines as immunotherapy
	7.6 Future perspectives
	References
8. Combinatorial approach to combat drug resistance in human pathogenic bacteria
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Food-borne bacterial infections
		8.2.1 Campylobacter
		8.2.2 Salmonella
		8.2.3 Staphylococcus
		8.2.4 Escherichia coli
		8.2.5 Clostridium
		8.2.6 Listeria
	8.3 Antibiotic treatment and their efficiency analysis
	8.4 Antibiotic resistance and antimicrobial resistance shown by Salmonella
	8.5 Future approach to fight salmonellosis
	8.6 Combinatorial approach in tuberculosis
	8.7 Therapeutics and their efficiency analysis
	8.8 Advanced therapeutics for tuberculosis
	8.9 Current therapeutics for treatment of cholera
	8.10 Advanced therapies against human pathogenic bacteria
	8.11 Future perspectives
	References
9. Combinatorial approach to combat drug resistance in human pathogenic fungi
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Major classes of antifungal drugs
		9.2.1 Azoles
			9.2.1.1 Drug efflux/overexpression of membrane transporters
			9.2.1.2 Altered ergosterol biosynthesis
			9.2.1.3 Altered sterol import
			9.2.1.4 Chromosomal abnormalities
		9.2.2 Polyenes
		9.2.3 Pyrimidine analogs
		9.2.4 Echinocandins
	9.3 Overview of combination therapy
	9.4 Mechanism of drug interactions
	9.5 Benefits of using drug combinations/applications of combinatorial approach
	9.6 Future perspectives
	References
10. Recent trends in the development of bacterial and fungal vaccines
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Understanding host–pathogen interaction
		10.2.1 Host–pathogen bacterial interaction
		10.2.2 Understanding host–pathogen fungal interaction
	10.3 Immunity and vaccination
	10.4 Vaccine development against bacterial pathogens
	10.5 Understanding vaccine development against fungal pathogens
	10.6 Future perspectives
	References
Index
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