Human Evolution: Bones, Cultures, and Genes

Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Part I: Introduction
	Chapter 1: The Reflection in the Mirror
		Origin Stories
			Constructing Human Identity
			Traits That Made Us Human
		An Overview of Human Evolution
		A Historic Debate: Out of Africa Versus Multiregionalism
			Multiregional Model
			Out of Africa
			Mitochondrial Eve
		The Uses of History
		Paleoanthropology for the Future
		References
	Chapter 2: Background: Evolutionary Classification and Fossil Dating
		Defining a Species
		The Origin of a New Species
		Speciation Versus Variation
		A Philosophical Debate: Lumpers Versus Splitters
		Cladistic Classification
		Reprise: What Is a Species?
		Dating Fossils
			Relative Dating
		Absolute Dating: Radioisotope Decay
		Absolute Dating: Other Techniques
		Are the Dates Correct? Correlation, Precision, and Accuracy
		References
	Chapter 3: A Primate Heritage
		Characteristics of Primates
		Skull, Teeth, and Diet
		Senses and the Brain
		Limbs, Posture, and Locomotion
		Reproduction and Society
		Hominoid Adaptations
		The Living Apes
			Gibbons (Family Hylobatidae)
			Orangutans (Genus Pongo)
			Gorillas (Genus Gorilla)
			Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)
			Bonobos (Pan paniscus)
		Building a Model
		References
Part II: The First Hominins
	Chapter 4: Miocene Hominoids
		Where Hominins Came from
		A Discovery of Diversity
		Hominoid Origins
			The First Anthropoids
			Early Hominoids in Africa
			Neither Ape Nor Monkey-like
		Recognizing the Earliest Hominins
			The Oldest Hominin Candidates
			Did Hominins and Humans First Evolve in East Africa?
		References
	Chapter 5: The Early Hominins: Australopiths
		Discovery
		Australopiths from South Africa: Historical Roots
			The Cradle of Humankind
			Making Sense of the South African Fossils
		Australopith Fossils in East Africa
			The Incompleteness of the Fossil Record
			The East African Rift Valley
		Species and Relationships
			Australopithecus
			Kenyanthropus
			Paranthropus
		Summary of Major Australopith Sites (Table 5.2)
			Sites in the Afar Triangle, Ethiopia
			Sites in the Omo-Lake Turkana Basin
			Sites in Tanzania
			Sites Outside the Rift Valley
		Major South African Sites
		References
	Chapter 6: The Ecological Context of Early Hominin Evolution
		Paleoenvironment: Where Did Australopiths Live?
		The Formation of the East African Savanna
			All Habitats Are Local
		Tools for Reconstructing Habitats
		In What Habitats Did Early Hominin Species Live?
			Habitats of the Earliest Hominins
			Australopith Habitats in East Africa
			Australopith Habitats in South Africa
			Summary
		Was Early Hominin Evolution Driven by Habitat Change?
		References
	Chapter 7: Understanding Australopiths
		Changing Questions
		What Did Australopiths Eat?
			Evidence from the Teeth
			Evidence from the Jaws
			Evidence from Microwear
			Evidence from Microwear
			Evidence from Stable Carbon Isotopes
			What Australopiths Ate
		Brain and Body Size
		Rate of Growth
		Social Structure
			Patrilocality
			Sexual Dimorphism
			Australopith Reproductive Patterns
		References
	Chapter 8: The Evolution of Bipedality
		Tracking the Evolution of Bipedalism
		The Anatomy of Bipedalism
		Adaptations for Upright Balance
		Adaptations for Lateral Balance
		Adaptations for Propulsion
		Adaptations for Carrying Weight
		Body Proportions
		Limb Proportions Among the Australopiths
		Australopiths Looking Back: The Last Common Ancestor
		Conclusions: Australopith Positional Behavior
		Why Are We Bipedal?
		Advantages of Bipedalism: An Abundance of Origin Stories
		Imagining the Ancestor
		Putting the Evidence Together: A Scenario (Fig. 8.26)
		References
Part III: The First Humans
	Chapter 9: The Earliest Humans in Africa
		Tools Need a Tool-Maker
		The First Members of Homo
			Homo habilis
			Earlier Fossils
			Defining Homo
			More Habilines
			Postcranial Evidence
			Homo ergaster
			Homo or Australopithecus?
		Australopiths Looking Forward: The Direct Human Ancestor
		The Environmental Context of the First Homo
			Climate Trends in East Africa
			Adaptive Responses
		References
	Chapter 10: The First Technology
		Discovering Tools
		The First Tools
			The Earliest Hominin Tools
			The Oldowan Tradition
			The Oldowan Reveals Behavior
			The Oldowan in Time and Space
		Tool-making Hands
			Human Adaptations of the Hand
			The Hands of Fossil Hominins
		References
	Chapter 11: Diet of Early Homo
		Carnivory and Hunting
			Hunting by Chimpanzees
			Archaeological Evidence for Carnivory
			The Rest of the Diet
			How Did Early Hominins Hunt?
		Evolution of the Modern Body
			Skeletal Changes
			Respiratory System
			Cardiac Changes
			Integument
		Endurance and Exercise
		References
	Chapter 12: Evolution of the Brain
		The Knowledge of Good and Evil
		How Did Brain Size Increase Through Time?
		What Does Brain Size Mean?
		Managing the Cost of a Large Brain
			Energy for the Brain
			Metabolism
			Brain-specific Nutrition
		Models of Higher Brain Evolution
			The Ecological Hypothesis
			The Social Hypothesis
			Explaining the Human Brain
		Structural Changes in the Evolving Brain
			Parts of the Neocortex
			The Prefrontal Cortex
			Parieto-occipital Reorganization
		Genetic Hints
		Language
			Language is Defined to be Unique to Humans
			Neuroanatomy of Language
			Vocal Anatomy
			Recursive Thoughts: The Origin of Language
		References
	Chapter 13: Leaving Africa
		The First Emigrants
			The Near East
			East and South Asia
		The Oldest Skeletal Remains Outside of Africa
			Dmanisi
			Another Puzzle of Diversity
			Postcrania from Dmanisi
			Phylogenetic Position
		Homo floresiensis: Dwarf Hominins in Indonesia
			Flores Island
			The Bones
			The History of Hominins on Flores
			What was the Hobbit?
			Homo luzonensis
		Characterizing the First Asians
		References
Part IV: The Middle Pleistocene
	Chapter 14: The Erectines of Asia
		The Erectine Dilemma
		Erectines in China
			Peking Man
			Characteristics of Homo erectus
			More H. erectus
		Homo erectus in Java
			Pithecanthropus
			More Discoveries
			Meager Evidence of Behavior
			Dating the First Appearance
			The End of Homo erectus
		Elsewhere in Eastern Asia
			Southeast Asia
			Korea
		References
	Chapter 15: Erectines of the West
		A Red Herring
		Erectines in Africa
			Homo ergaster
			Later Erectines in Africa
			Homo heidelbergensis in Africa
		Homo naledi: A Relic Primitive Human in Africa
		Homo heidelbergensis in Europe
			The Lack of an Asian Connection
			The First Europeans and the Ancestry of H. heidelbergensis
			Atapuerca
			Other Specimens
			Homo bodoensis?
		The Descendants of the Erectines
		References
	Chapter 16: Behavior in the Middle Pleistocene
		Internal Evidence
		Mode 2 Cultures
			The Spread of the Acheulean
		Adapting to the Pleistocene Cold
			Clothing
			Shelter
			Fire
		Cooking
			Food Technology
			The Cooking Hypothesis
		Hunting in the Middle Pleistocene
			Olorgesailie: Hunting Baboons in Africa
			Gesher Benot Ya’aqov: Butchering Fallow Deer in Israel
			Torralba, Ambrona, and Aridos: Scavenging elephants in Spain
			Schoeningen: Hunting Horses with Spears in Germany
		The Legacy of Meat-Eating and Hunting in Human Evolution
			Digestive Tract
			Absorption and Nutrition
			Microbiome
		References
Part V: The Emergence of Modern People
	Chapter 17: Late Pleistocene Homo and the Emergence of Modern Humans
		The Third Man
		Neanderthals
			Neanderthals in Time, Space, and Climate
			Anatomical Distinctiveness of Neanderthals
			The Neanderthal Genome
			Neanderthal Origins
		The Elusive Denisovans
		Late Archaic Chinese Hominins
		Evolution of Anatomically Modern Humans in Africa
		References
	Chapter 18: From the Middle Paleolithic to the Modern Mind
		Evidence of the Modern Mind
		The Middle Paleolithic in Europe
		The Middle Stone Age: Innovation in Africa and Beyond
			Blades and Related Tools
			Bone Tools
			Long Distance Trade and Transport
			Changes in Subsistence
			The Domestic Space
			Curious Objects, Personal Ornaments, and Symbolism
			Disposing of the Dead
		Becoming Modern in Africa
		Explaining Modernity
		References
	Chapter 19: Modern Humans Disperse From Africa
		Mount Carmel
		A “Failed” Migration
		Out of Africa
			Tracking the Dispersal through Genomes
		Encounters in Europe
			Modern Africans Meet European Neanderthals (Fig. 19.9)
			Neanderthals in the Gene Pool
			Neanderthal Extinction
		Becoming Modern in Europe
			Revolution or Continuity?
			Arrival of the Upper Paleolithic
		Modern Africans Meet Denisovans
			More Introgressions
		Modern Humans Enter China (Fig. 19.17)
		References
	Chapter 20: Distributing Modern Peoples
		Understanding Modern Populations through Genomics
			Of Lice and Men
		Origins in Africa (Fig. 20.3)
		Ancient Waves of Immigration into Europe
		Asian Stability amid Migrations
		Australia and the Pacific
			The Americas
		References
	Chapter 21: Life History and Reproduction
		Plans for Development
		Life History Strategies
			Trade-offs
		Human Life History
			Gestation and Weaning
			Litter Size
			Birth Spacing
			Childhood and Adolescence
			Reproductive Lifespan and Lifetime Fertility
			Reproductive Cessation
			The Grandmother Hypothesis
			The Reproductive Filter
			Aging and Reproductive Cessation
			Longevity
			The Emergence of Human Life History
		The Evolution of Birth
			The Obstetric Pelvis
			Why Is the Birth Canal so Small?
		To Raise a Child it Takes a Clan
			Sex and Pair-bonds
			The Necessity of Alloparents
		References
	Chapter 22: Evolution Today and Tomorrow
		The Human Animal
		Humans are Subject to Natural Laws
			Humans are Constrained by the Physical Environment
			Humans Co-evolve with Other Species
			The Human Population is Constrained by Carrying Capacity
			Humans Make Life History Compromises
			Humans Must Live with Our Own Natures
			Humans Can Go Extinct
			Humans are Different
		Domestication and Self-Domestication
		Humans Continue to Evolve
			Natural Selection Today
			Death as a Selective Factor
			Finding Selection
		References
Appendix of Anatomical Terms
Index