Human-Computer Interaction: An Empirical Research Perspective

Front Cover......Page 1
Human-Computer Interaction......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
Preface......Page 12
Acknowledgments......Page 16
Author Biography......Page 18
1 Historical Context......Page 20
1.1 Introduction......Page 21
1.2 Vannevar Bush’s “as we may think” (1945)......Page 22
1.3 Ivan Sutherland’s Sketchpad (1962)......Page 24
1.4 Invention of the mouse (1963)......Page 25
1.5 Xerox star (1981)......Page 30
1.6.1 First ACM SIGCHI conference (1983)......Page 34
1.6.2 The psychology of human-computer interaction (1983)......Page 36
1.6.3 Launch of the Apple Macintosh (1984)......Page 41
1.7 Growth of HCI and graphical user interfaces (GUIs)......Page 42
1.8 Growth of HCI research......Page 43
Student Exercises......Page 45
2 The Human Factor......Page 46
2.1 Time scale of human action......Page 47
2.2 Human factors......Page 48
2.3.1 Vision (Sight)......Page 49
2.3.2 Hearing (Audition)......Page 53
2.3.4 Smell and taste......Page 55
2.4.1 Limbs......Page 57
2.4.3 Eyes......Page 61
2.5.1 Perception......Page 63
2.5.2 Cognition......Page 66
2.5.3 Memory......Page 67
2.6 Language......Page 69
2.6.1 Redundancy in language......Page 71
2.6.2 Entropy in language......Page 72
2.7 Human performance......Page 73
2.7.1 Reaction time......Page 75
2.7.2 Visual search......Page 78
2.7.3 Skilled behavior......Page 81
2.7.4 Attention......Page 82
2.7.5 Human error......Page 84
Student Exercises......Page 86
3 Interaction Elements......Page 90
3.1 Hard controls and soft controls......Page 91
3.2 Control-display relationships......Page 93
3.2.1 Spatial relationships......Page 94
3.2.2 CD gain and transfer function......Page 99
3.2.3 Latency......Page 100
3.2.4 Property sensed and order of control......Page 103
3.3 Natural versus learned relationships......Page 105
3.4 Mental models and metaphor......Page 107
3.5 Modes......Page 112
3.6 More about degrees of freedom......Page 120
3.7 Mobile context......Page 125
3.8 Interaction errors......Page 130
Student Exercises......Page 136
4.1 What is research?......Page 140
4.1.1 Research must be published......Page 142
4.1.2 Citations, references, impact......Page 143
4.1.4 Research versus engineering versus design......Page 145
4.2 What is empirical research?......Page 148
4.3.2 Experimental method......Page 149
4.4.1 Observation......Page 151
4.4.2 Measurement scales......Page 152
4.4.3 Nominal......Page 153
4.4.5 Interval data......Page 155
4.4.6 Ratio data......Page 156
4.5 Research questions......Page 158
4.6 Internal validity and external validity......Page 159
4.7 Comparative evaluations......Page 162
4.8 Relationships: circumstantial and causal......Page 164
4.9 Research topics......Page 166
4.9.1 Ideas......Page 167
4.9.3 Tip #1: Think small!......Page 169
4.9.5 Tip #3: Know the literature!......Page 170
4.9.6 Tip #4: Think inside the box!......Page 171
Student Exercises......Page 174
5.1 What methodology?......Page 176
5.2 Ethics approval......Page 178
5.3 Experiment design......Page 179
5.4 Independent variables......Page 180
5.5 Dependent variables......Page 182
5.6 Other variables......Page 184
5.6.3 Confounding variables......Page 185
5.7 Task and procedure......Page 188
5.8 Participants......Page 190
5.9 Questionnaire design......Page 192
5.10 Within-subjects and between-subjects......Page 194
5.11 Order effects, counterbalancing, and latin squares......Page 196
5.12 Group effects and asymmetric skill transfer......Page 200
5.13 Longitudinal studies......Page 203
5.14 Running the experiment......Page 206
Student Exercises......Page 207
6 Hypothesis Testing......Page 210
6.1 Analysis of variance......Page 211
6.1.1 Why analyze the variance?......Page 212
6.1.2 More than two test conditions......Page 218
6.1.3 Post hoc comparisons......Page 220
6.1.4 Between-subjects designs......Page 221
6.1.5 Two-way analysis of variance......Page 222
6.1.6 ANOVA tool......Page 225
6.1.7 Counterbalancing and testing for a group effect......Page 226
6.2 Chi-square test......Page 228
6.3 Non-parametric tests for ordinal data......Page 233
6.3.1 Example 1......Page 234
6.3.2 Example 2......Page 235
6.3.3 Example 3......Page 237
6.3.4 Example 4......Page 239
6.3.5 Discussion......Page 240
6.4 Parametric versus non-parametric tests......Page 242
Student Exercises......Page 246
7.1 Descriptive models......Page 252
7.1.1 Delineating a problem space......Page 253
7.1.2 Quadrant model of groupware......Page 254
7.1.3 Key-action model (KAM)......Page 255
7.1.4 Model of bimanual control......Page 257
7.1.5 Three-state model for graphical input......Page 261
7.2 Predictive models......Page 263
7.2.1 Linear regression model......Page 264
7.2.2.1 Background......Page 268
7.2.2.2 Example......Page 271
7.2.3 Choice reaction time......Page 274
7.2.4.1 Original KLM experiment......Page 277
7.2.4.2 Modern applications of the KLM......Page 280
7.2.4.3 The KLM and (Predictive) text entry......Page 285
7.2.4.4 Updating the KLM’s mental operator (M)......Page 291
7.2.5 Skill acquisition......Page 293
7.2.5.1 Skill acquisition research in HCI......Page 297
7.2.6 More than one predictor......Page 298
Student Exercises......Page 302
8.1 Conference papers, journal papers......Page 312
8.2 Parts of a research paper......Page 314
8.2.2 Abstract......Page 315
8.2.3 Keywords......Page 316
8.2.4 Introduction......Page 317
8.2.5 Method......Page 318
8.2.5.3 Procedure......Page 319
8.2.6 Results and discussion......Page 320
8.3 Preparing the manuscript......Page 322
8.3.1 Formatting......Page 323
8.3.2.1 Reference list......Page 324
8.3.2.2 Citations......Page 326
8.3.3 Visual aids......Page 327
8.3.4 Writing for clarity......Page 330
Student Exercises......Page 332
References......Page 338
Software on this book’s website......Page 362
Index......Page 364