Human Biochemistry

Title page
Table of Contents
Copyright
Dedication
About the author
Preface
Introduction
Chapter 1. Organ Systems and Tissues
	Abstract
	Treatment of the Injured Knee: Use of Stem Cells to Replace Damaged Cartilage
	Development of Organs
	Gross Structures and Functions of Organ Systems
	Summary
	Suggested Reading
	Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapter 2. The Cell
	Abstract
	Cellular Trafficking in Alzheimer’s Disease
	Cell Membrane
	Nucleus and Cell Division
	Cytoplasm and Cytoskeleton
	Endoplasmic Reticulum
	Golgi Apparatus
	Mitochondria
	Peroxisome
	Lysosome
	Summary
	Suggested Reading
	Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapter 3. Introductory Discussion on Water, pH, Buffers, and General Features of Receptors, Channels, and Pumps
	Abstract
	Diabetes Insipidus
	Thirst and Arginine Vasopressin
	Action of Arginine Vasopressin on the Distal Kidney Tubule
	Water and Biological Roles
	Water Channels: Aquaporins
	The Role of Water in Protein Folding
	Protein–Water Interactions in Enzymatic Reactions
	Metabolic Water
	Proton Transfer in Liquid Water
	The Concentration of Hydrogen Ions (Protons) in Solution (pH)
	Buffers
	Receptors
	Ion Channels
	Enzymatic Pumping Mechanism
	Summary
	Suggested Reading
	Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapter 4. Proteins
	Abstract
	Prion Disease, A Disease of Protein Conformational Change
	Amino Acids
	Proteins
	Protein Classification
	Proteomics
	Protein Microarray
	Summary
	Suggested Reading
	Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapter 5. Enzymes
	Abstract
	Diagnostic Enzymology
	General Aspects of Catalysis
	Classification
	Coenzymes
	Prosthetic Groups
	Enzyme Filamentation in Cellular Regulation
	Drugs That Operate as Enzyme Inhibitors
	Enzyme Replacement Therapy—Gaucher Disease
	Summary
	Suggested Reading
	Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapter 6. Insulin and Sugars
	Abstract
	Diabetes
	Insulin
	The Pancreatic β-Cell and Insulin Secretion
	Detrimental Effects of Diabetes
	Synthetic Sweeteners
	Chemistry of Simple Sugars
	Glucose Transport
	Pentose Phosphate Pathway
	Conversion of Ribose to Deoxyribose
	Carbohydrate Constituents of Proteins—Glycoproteins
	Transfer of Nucleotide Sugars Into the Golgi Cisternae
	Sugars in Blood Group Proteins
	Enzymatic Conversion of A and B Blood Types to Type O (Universal Donor)
	Lactose Intolerance
	Glycobiology
	Summary
	Suggested Reading
	Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapter 7. Glycogen and Glycogenolysis
	Abstract
	Glycogen Storage Disease Type I, von Gierke Disease (and Others: At Least 11 Types of Glycogen Storage Disease)
	Glycogen—The Storage Carbohydrate
	Glucose Metabolism in Muscle
	Glycogenin and Formation of Glycogen
	Glycogenolysis (Releasing Glucose from Glycogen)
	Hormonal Control of Glycogen Metabolism and Blood Glucose Level
	Different Glucose Transporters in Different Tissues
	Summary
	Suggested Reading
	Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapter 8. Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis
	Abstract
	Hemolytic Anemia: Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Deficiency (A Rare Disease)
	Phosphofructokinase Enzymes Involved in the Conversion of Fructose-6-Phosphate to Fructose-1,6-Bisphosphate
	Cell Proliferation and Tumor Growth—The Warburg Effect
	Gluconeogenesis
	Alanine Cycle
	Glucose Can Be Formed From Glycerol
	Small-Molecule Regulation of Gluconeogenesis
	Glucose Transporters
	Summary
	Suggested Reading
	Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapter 9. Lipids
	Abstract
	Hypercholesterolemia
	Biosynthesis of Cholesterol
	Inhibition of Liver HMG-CoA Reductase by Drugs (Statins)
	The ARH Protein
	Bile Acids
	Fatty Acids and Fat
	Properties of Lipoproteins
	Lipid Anchoring of Proteins to Membranes
	Summary
	Suggested Reading
	Multiple-Choice Questions
	Case Study
Chapter 10. Nucleic Acids and Molecular Genetics
	Abstract
	Huntington’s Disease, A Single-Gene Mutation
	Purines and Pyrimidines
	Base Pairing
	The Structure of DNA
	Biosynthesis of Purines and Pyrimidines
	Purine Interconversions
	Catabolism of Purine and Pyrimidine Nucleotides
	Salvage Pathway
	Mitochondrial DNA Synthesis
	DNA Mutations and Damage
	Epigenetics
	Summary
	Suggested Reading
	Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapter 11. Protein Biosynthesis
	Abstract
	Defects in Mitochondrial Oxidative Phosphorylation and Disease: Deficiency in Mitochondrial Translation
	Protein Synthesis in the Mitochondrion
	Mitochondrial Encephalomyopathy With Lactic Acidosis and Stroke-Like Episodes
	Protein Synthesis Directed by the Nucleus
	The Ribosome
	Proteins Synthesized in the Cytoplasm but Destined for the Mitochondria
	Proteins Destined for the Nucleus
	Proteins Destined for Other Sites, Including the Plasma Membrane and Secretion from the Cell
	Summary
	Suggested Reading
	Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapter 12. Transcription
	Abstract
	Congenital Heart Disease: Mutations of Transcription Factors
	Transcription Factors Control Heart Development
	Transcription Factors Involved in Cardiac Hypertrophy
	Transcription Factors and the Transcription Complex
	Enhancers
	Coactivators and Corepressors
	The Glucocorticoid Receptor as a Model Transcription Factor
	The Inactive Glucocorticoid Receptor in the Cytoplasm and Its Activation
	Classes of Nuclear Receptors
	Cell Membrane Receptors
	Receptor Isoforms
	Chromatin
	Summary
	Suggested Reading
	Multiple-Choice Questions
	Case Study
Chapter 13. Metabolism of Amino Acids
	Abstract
	Urea Cycle–Related Disease: Hyperammonemia
	The Urea Cycle
	Amino Acid Metabolism: Amino and Amide Group Transfers
	Transamination
	Transamidation
	Deamination
	Oxidation of Amino Acids
	Amino Acid Racemization
	L-Amino Acid Decarboxylation
	Metabolism of Amino Acids to Active Substances
	Catabolism of Amino Acids
	Summary
	Suggested Reading
	Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapter 14. Metabolism of Fat, Carbohydrate, and Nucleic Acids
	Abstract
	Gaucher’s Disease: Most Common Lipid Storage Disease
	Lipid Metabolism
	Carbohydrate Metabolism
	The Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle, Citric Acid Cycle, or Kreb’s Cycle
	Nucleic Acid Metabolism
	Overview of Metabolism
	Summary
	Suggested Reading
	Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapter 15. Polypeptide Hormones
	Abstract
	Panhypopituitarism: Malfunction of the Hypothalamus–Pituitary–End Organ Axis
	Hormonal Signaling Pathways
	Models of Hormone Action of Anterior Pituitary Hormones
	Orexins (Hypocretins): Hypothalamic Hormones Controlling Sleep and Feeding
	Adiponectin From Adipose (Fat) Tissue
	Hormones of the Gastrointestinal Tract
	Summary
	Suggested Reading
	Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapter 16. Steroid Hormones
	Abstract
	Stress
	Nociceptin
	Responses to Stress
	Production of High Levels of Cortisol (Cushing’s Disease) and Subnormal Levels of Cortisol (Addison’s Disease)
	Adrenal Cortex
	Structures of Steroid Hormone Receptors
	Coactivators and Corepressors
	Physiological Functions of Steroid Hormones From Specific Receptor Knockouts
	Steroid Transporting Proteins in Plasma
	Enzymatic Inactivation of Cortisol
	Cortisol and Aldosterone
	Dehydroepiandrosterone
	Structural Considerations of Steroid Hormones
	Receptor Activation
	Vitamin D Hormone
	Thyroid Hormone
	Environmental Xenobiotics That Agonize or Antagonize the Estrogen Receptor
	Cross talk Between Steroid Receptors and Peptide Hormones
	Sex Hormones
	Peroxisome Proliferators and Their Receptors
	Glucocorticoid Induction of Programmed Cell Death (Apoptosis)
	Summary
	Suggested Reading
	Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapter 17. Growth Factors and Cytokines
	Abstract
	Prospects for Cytokine Tumor Necrosis Factor–Related Apoptosis-Inducing Ligand and Ovarian Cancer
	The Tumor Necrosis Factor Superfamily
	Growth Factors
	Summary
	Suggested Reading
	Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapter 18. Membrane Transport
	Abstract
	Cystic Fibrosis (Mucoviscidosis) and Aberrant Ion Transport
	Types of Membrane Transport
	Fatty Acid Transport Proteins
	Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels
	Epithelial Sodium Conductance Channel
	Multidrug Resistance Channel (MDR): A Member of the Adenosine Triphosphate–Binding Cassette Transporter Superfamily
	Blood–Brain Barrier
	Summary
	Multiple-Choice Questions
	Case Study
	Suggested Reading
Chapter 19. Micronutrients (Metals and Iodine)
	Abstract
	Iron-deficiency Anemia
	Uptake of Iron During Digestion
	Hepcidin, A Peptide Hormone, Is the Principal Regulator of Iron Homeostasis
	Hemojuvelin, An Anchored Membrane Protein Stimulates Hepcidin Transcription Through Bone Morphogenic (Morphogenetic) Proteins and Smad
	Heme Synthesis
	Hemoglobin Formation
	Trace Elements
	Summary
	Suggested Reading
	Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapter 20. Vitamins and Nutrition
	Abstract
	Vitamin D Deficiency
	Vitamins
	Thiamine (Vitamin B1, Aneurine)
	Addiction
	Fat-Soluble Vitamins
	Eye Health
	The Vegan Diet
	The Ketogenic (Keto) Diet and Weight Loss
	The Mediterranean Diet: Probably the Healthiest Diet
	Dietary Considerations in Chronic Kidney Disease
	Summary
	Suggested Reading
	Multiple-Choice Questions
	Case Study
Chapter 21. Blood and Lymphatic System
	Abstract
	Deep Vein Thrombosis
	Factor V Leiden
	Blood-Clotting Mechanism
	Blood
	Transport of Oxygen
	Carbon Dioxide
	Degradation of the Red Blood Cell
	Bilirubin
	Blood Cells
	Blood Proteins
	Blood Type and Rh Factor
	Origin of Nonself Blood Type Antibodies
	Rh Antigen
	Lymphatic System
	Thymosin
	Summary
	Suggested Reading
	Multiple-Choice Questions
List of Abbreviations
Appendix 1. Abbreviations of the Common Amino Acids
Appendix 2. The Genetic Code
Appendix 3. Weights and Measures
Appendix 4. Case Based Problems Discussion
	Chapter 1: Organ Systems and Tissues
	Chapter 2: The Cell
	Chapter 3: Introductory Discussion on Water, pH, Buffers, and General Features of Receptors, Channels, and Pumps
	Chapter 4: Proteins
	Chapter 5: Enzymes
	Chapter 6: Insulin and Sugars
	Chapter 7: Glycogen and Glycogenolysis
	Chapter 8: Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis
	Chapter 9: Lipids
	Chapter 9: Case Study
	Chapter 10: Nucleic Acids and Molecular Genetics
	Chapter 11: Protein Biosynthesis
	Chapter 12: Transcription
	Chapter 12: Case Study
	Chapter 13: Metabolism of Amino Acids
	Chapter 14: Metabolism of Fat, Carbohydrate, and Nucleic Acids
	Chapter 15: Polypeptide Hormones
	Chapter 16: Steroid Hormones
	Chapter 17: Growth Factors and Cytokines
	Chapter 18: Membrane Transport
	Chapter 18: Case Study
	Chapter 19: Micronutrients (Metals and Iodine)
	Chapter 20: Vitamins and Nutrition
	Chapter 20: Case Study
	Chapter 21: Blood and Lymphatic System
Index