Human Anatomy & Physiology

Front Cover
Brief Contents
Book Features
Title Page
Copyright Page
About the Authors
Preface
CONTENTS (with direct page links)
UNIT 1 - Organization of the Body (01-04)
	1. The Human Body: An Orientation
		1.1. Form (Anatomy) Determines Function (Physiology)
		1.2. The Body’s Organization Ranges from Atoms to the Entire Organism
		1.3. What are the Requirements for Life?
		1.4. Homeostasis is Maintained by Negative Feedback
		1.5. Anatomical Terms Describe Body Directions, Regions, and Planes
		A Closer Look Medical Imaging: Illuminating the Body
		1.6. Many Internal Organs Lie in Membrane-Lined Body Cavities
		Summary
		Review Questions
	2. Chemistry Comes Alive
		Part 1: Basic Chemistry
			2.1. Matter is the Stuff of the Universe and Energy Moves Matter
			2.2. The Properties of an Element Depend on the Structure of its Atoms
			2.3. Atoms Bound Together Form Molecules; Different Molecules can make Mixtures
			2.4. The Three Types of Chemical Bonds are Ionic, Covalent, and Hydrogen
			2.5. Chemical Reactions Occur when Electrons are Shared, Gained, or Lost
		Part 2: Biochemistry
			2.6. Inorganic Compounds Include Water, Salts, and Many Acids and Bases
			2.7. Organic Compounds are made by Dehydration Synthesis and Broken Down by Hydrolysis
			2.8. Carbohydrates Provide an Easily used Energy Source for the Body
			2.9. Lipids Insulate Body Organs, Build Cell Membranes, and Provide Stored Energy
			2.10. Proteins are the Body’s Basic Structural Material and have Many Vital Functions
			2.11. DNA and RNA Store, Transmit, and Help Express Genetic Information
			2.12. ATP Transfers Energy to Other Compounds
		Summary
		Review Questions
		At the Clinic
	3. Cells: The Living Units
		3.1. Cells are the Smallest Unit of Life
		Part 1: Plasma Membrane
			3.2. The Fluid Mosaic Model Depicts the Plasma Membrane as a Double Layer of Phospholipids with Embedded Proteins
			3.3. Passive Membrane Transport is Diffusion of Molecules Down their Concentration Gradient
			3.4. Active Membrane Transport Directly or Indirectly Uses ATP
			Focus Figure 3.1: Primary Active Transport: The Na+-K+ Pump
			3.5. Selective Diffusion Establishes the Membrane Potential
			3.6. Cell Adhesion Molecules and Membrane Receptors Allow the Cell to Interact with its Environment
			Focus Figure 3.2: G Proteins
		Part 2: The Cytoplasm
			3.7. Cytoplasmic Organelles Each Perform a Specialized Task
			3.8. Cilia and Microvilli are Two Main Types of Cellular Extensions
		Part 3: Nucleus
			3.9. The Nucleus includes the Nuclear Envelope, the Nucleolus, and Chromatin
			3.10. The Cell Cycle Consists of Interphase and a Mitotic Phase
			3.11. Messenger RNA Carries Instructions from DNA for Building Proteins
			Focus Figure 3.3: Mitosis
			Focus Figure 3.4: Translation
			3.12. Apoptosis Disposes of Unneeded Cells; Autophagy and Proteasomes Dispose of Unneeded Organelles and Proteins
			Developmental Aspects of Cells
		Summary
		Review Questions
		At the Clinic
	4. Tissue: The Living Fabric
		4.1. Tissue Samples are Fixed, Sliced, and Stained for Microscopy
		4.2. Epithelial Tissue Covers Body Surfaces, Lines Cavities, and Forms Glands
		4.3. Connective Tissue is the Most Abundant and Widely Distributed Tissue in the Body
		4.4. Muscle Tissue is Responsible for Body Movement
		4.5. Nervous Tissue is a Specialized Tissue of the Nervous System
		A Closer Look Cancer—The Intimate Enemy
		4.6. The Cutaneous Membrane is Dry; Mucous and Serous Membranes are Wet
		4.7. Tissue Repair Involves Inflammation, Organization, and Regeneration
		Developmental Aspects of Tissues
		Summary
		Review Questions
		At the Clinic
UNIT 2 - Covering, Support, and Movement of the Body (05-10)
	5. The Integumentary System
		5.1. The Skin Consists of Two Layers: The Epidermis and Dermis
		5.2. The Epidermis is a Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium
		5.3. The Dermis Consists of Papillary and Reticular Layers
		5.4. Melanin, Carotene, and Hemoglobin Determine Skin Color
		5.5. Hair Consists of Dead, Keratinized Cells
		5.6. Nails are Scale-Like Modifications of the Epidermis
		5.7. Sweat Glands Help Control Body Temperature, and Sebaceous Glands Secrete Sebum
		5.8. First and Foremost, the Skin is a Barrier
		5.9. Skin Cancer and Burns are Major Challenges to the Body
		Developmental Aspects of the Integumentary System
		System Connections
		Summary
		Review Questions
		At the Clinic
	6. Bones and Skeletal Tissues
		6.1. Hyaline, Elastic, and Fibrocartilage Help Form the Skeleton
		6.2. Bones Perform Several Important Functions
		6.3. Bones are Classified by their Location and Shape
		6.4. The Gross Structure of All Bones Consists of Compact Bone Sandwiching Spongy Bone
		6.5. Bones Develop Either by Intramembranous or Endochondral Ossification
		6.6. Bone Remodeling Involves Bone Deposit and Removal
		6.7. Bone Repair Involves Hematoma and Callus Formation, and Remodeling
		6.8. Bone Disorders Result From Abnormal Bone Deposition and Resorption
		Developmental Aspects of Bones
		System Connections
		Summary
		Review Questions
		At the Clinic
	7. The Skeleton
		Part 1: The Axial Skeleton
			7.1. The Skull Consists of 8 Cranial Bones and 14 Facial Bones
			7.2. The Vertebral Column is a Flexible, Curved Support Structure
			7.3. The Thoracic Cage is the Bony Structure of the Chest
		Part 2: The Appendicular Skeleton
			7.4. Each Pectoral Girdle Consists of a Clavicle and a Scapula
			7.5. The Upper Limb Consists of the Arm, Forearm, and Hand
			7.6. The Hip Bones Attach to the Sacrum, Forming the Pelvic Girdle
			7.7. The Lower Limb Consists of the Thigh, Leg, and Foot
			Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton
		Summary
		Review Questions
		At the Clinic
	8. Joints
		8.1. Joints are Classified into Three Structural and Three Functional Categories
		8.2. In  Fibrous Joints, the Bones are Connected by Fibrous Tissue
		8.3. In Cartilaginous Joints, the Bones are Connected by Cartilage
		8.4. Synovial Joints have a Fluid-Filled Joint Cavity
		8.5. Five Examples Illustrate the Diversity of Synovial Joints
		Focus Figure 8.1: Synovial Joints
		8.6. Joints are Easily Damaged by Injury, Inflammation, and Degeneration
		A Closer Look Joints: From Knights in Shining Armor to Bionic Humans
		Developmental Aspects of Joints
		Summary
		Review Questions
		At the Clinic
	9. Muscles and Muscle Tissue
		9.1. There are Three Types of Muscle Tissue
		9.2. A Skeletal Muscle is Made Up of Muscle Fibers, Nerves, Blood Vessels, and Connective Tissues
		9.3. Skeletal Muscle Fibers Contain Calcium-Regulated Molecular Motors
		9.4. Motor Neurons Stimulate Skeletal Muscle Fibers to Contract
		Focus Figure 9.1: Events at the Neuromuscular Junction
		Focus Figure 9.2: Excitation-Contraction Coupling
		Focus Figure 9.3: Cross Bridge Cycle
		9.5. Wave Summation and Motor Unit Recruitment Allow Smooth, Graded Skeletal Muscle Contractions
		9.6. ATP for Muscle Contraction is Produced Aerobically or Anaerobically
		9.7. The Force, Velocity, and Duration of Skeletal Muscle Contractions are Determined by a Variety of Factors
		9.8. How Does Skeletal Muscle Respond to Exercise?
		9.9. Smooth Muscle is Nonstriated Involuntary Muscle
		Developmental Aspects of Muscles
		A Closer Look Athletes Looking Good and Doing Better with Anabolic Steroids?
		System Connections
		Summary
		Review Questions
		At the Clinic
	10. The Muscular System
		10.1. For Any Movement, Muscles Can Act in One of Three Ways
		10.2. How are Skeletal Muscles Named?
		Focus Figure 10.1: Muscle Action
		10.3. Fascicle Arrangements Help Determine Muscle Shape and Force
		10.4. Muscles Acting With Bones Form Lever Systems
		10.5. A Muscle’s Origin and Insertion Determine its Action
		Table 10.1: Muscles of the Head, Part I: Facial Expression
		Table 10.2: Muscles of the Head, Part II: Mastication and Tongue Movement
		Table 10.3: Muscles of the Anterior Neck and Throat: Swallowing
		Table 10.4: Muscles of the Neck and Vertebral Column: Head Movements and Trunk Extension
		Table 10.5: Deep Muscles of the Thorax: Breathing
		Table 10.6: Muscles of the Abdominal Wall: Trunk Movements and Compression of Abdominal Viscera
		Table 10.7: Muscles of the Pelvic Floor and Perineum: Support of Abdominopelvic Organs
		Table 10.8: Superficial Muscles of the Anterior and Posterior Thorax: Movements of the Scapula and Arm
		Table 10.9: Muscles Crossing the Shoulder Joint: Movements of the Arm (Humerus)
		Table 10.10: Muscles Crossing the Elbow Joint: Flexion and Extension of the Forearm
		Table 10.11: Muscles of the Forearm: Movements of the Wrist, Hand, and Fingers
		Table 10.12: Summary: Actions of Muscles Acting on the Arm, Forearm, and Hand
		Table 10.13: Intrinsic Muscles of the Hand: Fine Movements of the Fingers
		Table 10.14: Muscles Crossing the Hip and Knee Joints: Movements of the Thigh and Leg
		Table 10.15: Muscles of the Leg: Movements of the Ankle and Toes
		Table 10.16: Intrinsic Muscles of the Foot: Toe Movement and Arch Support
		Table 10.17: Summary: Actions of Muscles Acting on the Thigh, Leg, and Foot
		Summary
		Review Questions
		At the Clinic
UNIT 3 - Regulation and Integration of the Body (11-16)
	11. Fundamentals of the Nervous System and Nervous Tissue
		11.1. The Nervous System Receives, Integrates, and Responds to Information
		11.2. Neuroglia Support and Maintain Neurons
		11.3. Neurons are the Structural Units of the Nervous System
		11.4. The Resting Membrane Potential Depends on Differences in Ion Concentration and Permeability
		Focus Figure 1 1.1: Resting Membrane Potential
		11.5. Graded Potentials are Brief, Short-Distance Signals within a Neuron
		11.6. Action Potentials are Brief, Long-Distance Signals within a Neuron
		Focus Figure 1 1.2: Action Potential
		11.7. Synapses Transmit Signals Between Neurons
		Focus Figure 1 1.3: Chemical Synapse
		A Closer Look Pleasure Me, Pleasure Me!
		11.8. Postsynaptic Potentials Excite or Inhibit the Receiving Neuron
		11.9. The Effect of a Neurotransmitter Depends on
its Receptor
		11.10. Neurons Act Together, Making Complex Behaviors Possible
		Developmental Aspects of Neurons
		Summary
		Review Questions
		At the Clinic
	12. The Central Nervous System
		12.1. Folding During Development Determines the Complex Structure of the Adult Brain
		12.2. The Cerebral Hemispheres Consist of Cortex, White Matter, and the Basal Nuclei
		12.3. The Diencephalon Includes the Thalamus, Hypothalamus, and Epithalamus
		12.4. The Brain Stem Consists of the Midbrain, Pons, and Medulla Oblongata
		12.5. The Cerebellum Adjusts Motor Output, Ensuring Coordination and Balance
		12.6. Functional Brain Systems Span Multiple Brain Structures
		12.7. The Interconnected Structures of the Brain Allow Higher Mental Functions
		12.8. The Brain is Protected by Bone, Meninges, Cerebrospinal Fluid, and the Blood Brain Barrier
		12.9. Brain Injuries and Disorders have Devastating Consequences
		12.10. The Spinal Cord is a Reflex Center and Conduction Pathway
		12.11. Neuronal Pathways Carry Sensory and Motor Information to and from the Brain
		Developmental Aspects of the Central Nervous System
		Summary
		Review Questions
		At the Clinic
	13. The Peripheral Nervous System and Reflex Activity
		Part 1: Sensory Receptors and Sensation
			13.1. Sensory Receptors are Activated by Changes in the Internal or External Environment
			13.2. Receptors, Ascending Pathways, and Cerebral Cortex Process Sensory Information
		Part 2: Transmision Lines: Nerves and their Structure and Repair
			13.3. Nerves are Cordlike Bundles of Axons that Conduct Sensory and Motor Impulses
			13.4. There are 12 Pairs of Cranial Nerves
			13.5. 31 Pairs of Spinal Nerves Innervate the Body
		Part 3: Motor Endings and Motor Activity
			13.6. Peripheral Motor Endings Connect Nerves to their Effectors
			13.7. There are Three Levels of Motor Control
		Part 4: Reflex Activity
			13.8. The Reflex Arc Enables Rapid and Predictable Responses
			13.9. Spinal Reflexes are Somatic Reflexes Mediated by the Spinal Cord
			Focus Figure 1 3.1: Stretch Reflex
			Developmental Aspects of the Peripheral Nervous System
		Summary
		Review Questions
		At the Clinic
	14. The Autonomic Nervous System
		14.1. The ANS Differs from the Somatic Nervous System in that it can Stimulate or Inhibit its Effectors
		14.2. The ANS Consists of the Parasympathetic and Sympathetic Divisions
		14.3. Long Preganglionic Parasympathetic Fibers Originate in the Craniosacral CNS
		14.4. Short Preganglionic Sympathetic Fibers Originate in the Thoracolumbar CNS
		14.5. Visceral Reflex Arcs have the Same Five Components as Somatic Reflex Arcs
		14.6. Acetylcholine and Norepinephrine are the Major ANS Neurotransmitters
		14.7. The Parasympathetic and Sympathetic Divisions Usually Produce Opposite Effects
		14.8. The Hypothalamus Oversees ANS Activity
		14.9. Most ANS Disorders Involve Abnormalities in Smooth Muscle Control
		Developmental Aspects of the ANS
		System Connections
		Summary
		Review Questions
		At the Clinic
	15. The Special Senses
		Part 1: The Eye and Vision
			15.1. The Eye
has Three Layers, a Lens, and Humors, and is Surrounded by Accessory Structures
			15.2. The Cornea and Lens Focus Light on the Retina
			15.3. Phototransduction Begins when Light Activates Visual Pigments in Retinal Photoreceptors
			15.4. Visual Information From the Retina Passes through Relay Nuclei to the Visual Cortex
		Part 2: The Chemical Senses: Smel and Taste
			15.5. Airborne Chemicals are Detected by Olfactory Receptors in the Nose
			15.6. Dissolved Chemicals are Detected by Receptor Cells in Taste Buds
		Part 3: The Ear: Hearing and Balance
			15.7. The Ear
has Three Major Areas
			15.8. Sound is a Pressure Wave that Stimulates Mechanosensitive Cochlear Hair Cells
			15.9. Sound Information is Processed and Relayed through Brain Stem and Thalamic Nuclei to the Auditory Cortex
			15.10. Hair Cells in the Maculae and Cristae Ampullares Monitor Head Position and Movement
			15.11. Ear Abnormalities Can Affect Hearing, Equilibrium, or Both
			Developmental Aspects of the Special Senses
		Summary
		Review Questions
		At the Clinic
	16. The Endocrine System
		16.1. The Endocrine System is One of the Body’s Two Major Control Systems
		16.2. The Chemical Structure of a Hormone Determines How it Acts
		16.3. Hormones Act through Second Messengers or by Activating Specific Genes
		16.4. Three Types of Stimuli Cause Hormone Release
		16.5. Cells Respond to a Hormone if they have a Receptor for that Hormone
		16.6. The Hypothalamus Controls Release of Hormones from the Pituitary Gland in Two Different Ways
		Focus Figure 1 6.1: Hypothalamus and Pituitary Interactions
		16.7. The Thyroid Gland Controls Metabolism
		16.8. The Parathyroid Glands are Primary Regulators of Blood Calcium Levels
		16.9. The Adrenal Glands Produce Hormones Involved in Electrolyte Balance and the Stress Response
		16.10. The Pineal Gland Secretes Melatonin
		16.11. The Pancreas, Gonads, and Most Other Organs Secrete Hormones
		Developmental Aspects of the Endocrine System
		A Closer Look Sweet Revenge: Taming the Diabetes Monster?
		System Connections
		Summary
		Review Questions
		At the Clinic
UNIT 4 - Maintenance of the Body (17-26)
	17. Blood
		17.1. The Functions of Blood are Transport, Regulation, and Protection
		17.2. Blood Consists of Plasma and Formed Elements
		17.3. Erythrocytes Play a Crucial Role in Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transport
		17.4. Leukocytes Defend the Body
		17.5. Platelets are Cell Fragments that Help Stop Bleeding
		17.6. Hemostasis Prevents Blood Loss
		17.7. Transfusion Can Replace Lost Blood
		17.8. Blood Tests Give Insights
into a Patient’s Health
		Developmental Aspects of Blood
		Summary
		Review Questions
		At the Clinic
	18. The Cardiovascular System: The Heart
		18.1. The Heart has Four Chambers and Pumps Blood through the Pulmonary and Systemic Circuits
		18.2. Heart Valves Make Blood Flow in One Direction
		18.3. Blood Flows from Atrium to Ventricle, and then to Either the Lungs or the Rest of the Body
		Focus Figure 1 8.1: Blood Flow through the Heart
		18.4. Intercalated Discs Connect Cardiac Muscle Fibers
into a Functional Syncytium
		18.5. Pacemaker Cells Trigger Action Potentials throughout the Heart
		18.6. The Cardiac Cycle Describes the Mechanical Events Associated with Blood Flow through the Heart
		18.7. Stroke Volume and Heart Rate are Regulated to Alter Cardiac Output
		Developmental Aspects of the Heart
		Summary
		Review Questions
		At the Clinic
	19. The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels
		Part 1: Blod Vesel Structure and Function
			19.1. Most Blood Vessel Walls have Three Layers
			19.2. Arteries are Pressure Reservoirs, Distributing Vessels, or Resistance Vessels
			19.3. Capillaries are Exchange Vessels
			19.4. Veins are Blood Reservoirs that Return Blood Toward the Heart
			19.5. Anastomoses are Special Interconnections Between Blood Vessels
			A Closer Look Atherosclerosis? Get Out the Cardiovascular
Drano
		Part 2: Physiology of Circulation
			19.6. Blood Flows From High to Low Pressure Against Resistance
			19.7. Blood Pressure Decreases as Blood Flows from Arteries through Capillaries and into Veins
			19.8. Blood Pressure is Regulated by Short- and Long-Term Controls
			19.9. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Controls Determine Blood Flow through Tissues
			19.10. Slow Blood Flow through Capillaries Promotes Diffusion of Nutrients and Gases, and Bulk Flow of Fluids
			Focus Figure 19.1: Bulk Flow Across Capillary Walls
		Part 3: Circulatory Pathways : Blood Vessels of the Body
			19.11. The Vessels of the Systemic Circulation Transport Blood to All Body Tissues
			Table 19.3: Pulmonary and Systemic Circulations
			Table 19.4:
The Aorta and Major Arteries of the Systemic Circulation
			Table 19.5: Arteries of the Head and Neck
			Table 19.6: Arteries of the Upper Limbs and Thorax
			Table 19.7: Arteries of the Abdomen
			Table 19.8: Arteries of the Pelvis and Lower Limbs
			Table 19.9:
The Venae Cavae and the Major Veins of the Systemic Circulation
			Table 19.10: Veins of the Head and Neck
			Table 19.11: Veins of the Upper Limbs and Thorax
			Table 19.12: Veins of the Abdomen
			Table 19.13: Veins of the Pelvis and Lower Limbs
			Developmental Aspects of Blood Vessels
			System Connections
		Summary
		Review Questions
		At the Clinic
	20. The Lymphatic System and Lymphoid Organs and Tissues
		20.1. The Lymphatic System Includes Lymphatic Vessels, Lymph, and Lymph Nodes
		20.2. Lymphoid Cells and Tissues are Found in Lymphoid Organs and in Connective Tissue of Other Organs
		20.3. Lymph Nodes Filter Lymph and House Lymphocytes
		20.4. The Spleen Removes Bloodborne Pathogens and Aged Red Blood Cells
		20.5. Malt Guards the Body’s Entryways Against Pathogens
		20.6. T Lymphocytes Mature in the Thymus
		Developmental Aspects of the Lymphatic System and Lymphoid Organs and Tissues
		System Connections
		Summary
		Review Questions
		At the Clinic
	21. The Immune System: Innate and Adaptive Body Defenses
		Part 1: Innate Defenses
			21.1. Surface Barriers Act as the First Line of Defense to Keep Invaders
out of the Body
			21.2. Innate Internal Defenses are Cells and Chemicals
that Act as the Second Line of Defense
		Part 2: Adaptive Defenses
			21.3. Antigens are Substances
that Trigger the Body’s Adaptive Defenses
			21.4. B and T Lymphocytes and Antigen-Presenting Cells are Cells of the Adaptive Immune Response
			21.5. In  Humoral Immunity, Antibodies are Produced that Target Extracellular Antigens
			21.6. Cellular Immunity Consists of T Lymphocytes
that Direct Adaptive Immunity or Attack Cellular Targets
			21.7. Insufficient or Overactive Immune Responses Create Problems
			Developmental Aspects of the Immune System
		Summary
		Review Questions
		At the Clinic
	22. The Respiratory System
		Part 1: Functional Anatomy
			22.1. The Upper Respiratory System Warms, Humidifies, and Filters Air
			22.2. The Lower Respiratory System Consists of Conducting and Respiratory Zone Structures
			22.3. Each Multilobed Lung Occupies
its Own Pleural Cavity
		Part 2: Respiratory Physiology
			22.4. Volume Changes Cause Pressure Changes, Which Cause Air to Move
			22.5. Measuring Respiratory Volumes, Capacities, and Flow Rates Helps Us Assess Ventilation
			22.6. Gases Exchange by Diffusion between the Blood, Lungs, and Tissues
			22.7. Oxygen is Transported by Hemoglobin, and Carbon Dioxide is Transported in Three Different Ways
			Focus Figure 22.1 The Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve
			22.8. Respiratory Centers in the Brain Stem Control Breathing with Input from Chemoreceptors and Higher Brain Centers
			22.9. Exercise and High Altitude Bring about Respiratory Adjustments
			22.10. Lung Diseases are Major Causes of Disability and Death
			Developmental Aspects of the Respiratory System
			System Connections
		Summary
		Review Questions
		At the Clinic
	23. The Digestive System
		Part 1: Overview of the Digestive System
			23.1. What Major Processes Occur During Digestive System Activity?
			23.2. The GI Tract has Four Layers and is Usually Surrounded by Peritoneum
			23.3. The GI Tract has its Own Nervous System Called the Enteric Nervous System
		Part 2: Functional Anatomy of the Digestive System
			23.4. Ingestion Occurs Only at the Mouth
			23.5. The Pharynx and Esophagus Move Food from the Mouth to the Stomach
			23.6. The Stomach Temporarily Stores Food and Begins Protein Digestion
			23.7. The Liver Secretes Bile; the Pancreas Secretes Digestive Enzymes
			23.8. The Small Intestine is the Major Site for Digestion and Absorption
			23.9. The Large Intestine Absorbs Water and Eliminates Feces
		Part 3: Physiology of Digestion and Absorption
			23.10. Digestion Hydrolyzes Food into Nutrients
that are Absorbed Across the Gut Epithelium
			23.11. How is Each Type of Nutrient Processed?
			Developmental Aspects of the Digestive System
			System Connections
		Summary
		Review Questions
		At the Clinic
	24. Nutrition, Metabolism, and Energy Balance
		Part 1: Nutrients
			24.1. Carbohydrates, Lipids, and Proteins Supply Energy and are Used as Building Blocks
			24.2. Most Vitamins Act as Coenzymes; Minerals have many Roles in the Body
		Part 2: Metabolism
			24.3. Metabolism is the Sum of All Biochemical Reactions in the Body
			24.4. Carbohydrate Metabolism is the Central Player in ATP Production
			Focus Figure 2 4.1: Oxidative Phosphorylation
			24.5. Lipid Metabolism is Key for Long-Term Energy Storage and Release
			24.6. Amino Acids are used to Build Proteins or for Energy
			24.7. Energy is Stored in the Absorptive State and Released in the Postabsorptive State
			24.8. The Liver Metabolizes, Stores, and Detoxifies
		Part 3: Energy Balance
			24.9. Neural and Hormonal Factors Regulate Food Intake
			A Closer Look Obesity: Magical Solution Wanted
			24.10. Thyroxine is the Major Hormone that Controls Basal Metabolic Rate
			24.11. The Hypothalamus Acts as the Body’s Thermostat
			Developmental Aspects of Nutrition and Metabolism
		Summary
		Review Questions
		At the Clinic
	25. The Urinary System
		25.1. The Kidneys have Three Distinct Regions and a Rich Blood Supply
		25.2. Nephrons are the Functional Units of the Kidney
		25.3. Overview: Filtration, Absorption, and Secretion are the Key Processes of Urine Formation
		25.4. Urine Formation, Step 1: The Glomeruli Make Filtrate
		25.5. Urine Formation, Step 2: Most of the Filtrate is Reabsorbed into the Blood
		25.6. Urine Formation, Step 3: Certain Substances are Secreted
into the Filtrate
		25.7. The Kidneys Create and Use an Osmotic Gradient to Regulate Urine Concentration and Volume
		Focus Figure 2 5.1: Medullary Osmotic Gradient
		25.8. Renal Function is Evaluated by Analyzing Blood and Urine
		25.9. The Ureters, Bladder, and Urethra Transport, Store, and Eliminate Urine
		Developmental Aspects of the Urinary System
		Summary
		Review Questions
		At the Clinic
	26. Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance
		26.1. Body Fluids Consist of Water and Solutes in Three Main Compartments
		26.2. Both Intake and Output of Water are Regulated
		26.3. Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, and Phosphate Levels are Tightly Regulated
		26.4. Chemical Buffers and Respiratory Regulation Rapidly Minimize PH Changes
		26.5. Renal Regulation is a Long-Term Mechanism for Controlling Acid-Base Balance
		26.6. Abnormalities of Acid-Base Balance are Classified as Metabolic or Respiratory
		A Closer Look Sleuthing: Using Blood Values to Determine the Cause of Acidosis or Alkalosis
		Developmental Aspects of Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance
		System Connections
		Summary
		Review Questions
		At the Clinic
UNIT 5 Continuity (27-29)
	27. The Reproductive System
		Part 1: Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System
			27.1. The Testes are Enclosed and Protected by the Scrotum
			27.2. The Penis is the Copulatory Organ of the Male
			27.3. Sperm Travel from the Testes to the Body Exterior through a System of Ducts
			27.4. The Male Accessory Glands Produce the Bulk of Semen
		Part 2: Physiology of the Male Reproductive System
			27.5. The Male Sexual Response includes Erection and Ejaculation
			27.6. Spermatogenesis is the Sequence of Events that Leads to Formation of Sperm
			27.7. Male Reproductive Function is Regulated by Hypothalamic, Anterior Pituitary, and Testicular Hormones
		Part 3: Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System
			27.8. Immature Eggs Develop in Follicles in the Ovaries
			27.9. The Female Duct System includes the Uterine Tubes, Uterus, and Vagina
			27.10. The External Genitalia of the Female include those Structures that Lie External to the Vagina
			27.11. The Mammary Glands Produce Milk
		Part 4: Physiology of the Female Reproductive System
			27.12. Oogenesis is the Sequence of Events that Leads to the Formation of Ova
			27.13. The Ovarian Cycle Consists of the Follicular Phase and the Luteal Phase
			27.14. Female Reproductive Function is Regulated by Hypothalamic, Anterior Pituitary, and Ovarian Hormones
			27.15. The Female Sexual Response is more Diverse and Complex than that of Males
			Part 5: Sexualy Transmited Infections
			27.16. Sexually Transmitted Infections Cause Reproductive and Other Disorders
			Developmental Aspects of the Reproductive System
			System Connections
		Summary
		Review Questions
		At the Clinic
	28. Pregnancy and Human Development
		28.1. Fertilization is the Joining of Sperm and Egg Chromosomes to Form a Zygote
		28.2. Embryonic Development Begins as the Zygote Undergoes Cleavage and Forms a Blastocyst En Route to the Uterus
		Focus Figure 28.1: Sperm Penetration and the Blocks to Polyspermy
		28.3. Implantation Occurs When the Embryo Burrows
into the Uterine Wall, Triggering Placenta Formation
		28.4. Embryonic Events include Gastrula Formation and Tissue Differentiation, which are followed by Rapid Growth of the Fetus
		28.5. During Pregnancy, the Mother Undergoes Anatomical, Physiological, and Metabolic Changes
		28.6. The Three Stages of Labor are the Dilation, Expulsion, and Placental Stages
		28.7. An Infant’s Extrauterine Adjustments include taking the First Breath and Closure of Vascular Shunts
		28.8. Lactation is Milk Secretion by the Mammary Glands in Response to Prolactin
		A Closer Look Contraception: To Be or Not To Be
		28.9. Assisted Reproductive Technology May Aid an Infertile Couple’s Ability to have Offspring
		Summary
		Review Questions
		At the Clinic
	29. Heredity
		29.1. Genes are the Vocabulary of Genetics
		29.2. Genetic Variation Results from Independent Assortment, Crossover of Homologues, and Random Fertilization
		29.3. Several Patterns of Inheritance have Long Been Known
		29.4. Environmental Factors May Influence or Override Gene Expression
		29.5. Factors Other Than Nuclear DNA Sequence can Determine Inheritance
		29.6. Genetic Screening is used to Determine or Predict Genetic Disorders
		Summary
		Review Questions
		At the Clinic
ANSWERS Appendix
	01
	02 - 03
	04
	05
	06 - 07
	08
	09
	10 - 11
	12
	13
	14
	15 - 16
	17
	18
	19
	20
	21
	22
	23
	24
	25
	26
	27
	28
	29
APPENDICES
	A: The Metric System
	B: Functional Groups in Organic Molecules
	C: The Amino Acids
	D: Two Important Metabolic Pathways
	E: Periodic Table of the Elements
	F: Reference Values for Selected Blood and Urine Studies
	G: The Genetic Code
Glossary
	Pronunciation Key
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	J
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W - X - Y - Z
Photo and Illustration Credits
INDEX (with direct page links)
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	J
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	X - Y - Z
Word Roots, Prefixes, Suffixes, and Combining Forms
	Prefixes and Combining Forms
	Suffixes
Back Cover