Hormone Behavior Relations of Clinical Importance: Endocrine Systems Interacting with Brain and Behavior

Hormone/Behavior Relations of Clinical Importance: Endocrine Systems Interacting with Brain and Behavior......Page 4
Contents......Page 6
Contributors......Page 26
About the Editors......Page 30
 Principles of Translational Neuroendocrinology......Page 32
References......Page 35
Part I: Endocrine Systems Interacting with Brain & Behavior......Page 36
1 Genetic Transmission of Behavior and Its Neuroendocrine Correlates......Page 38
Stress and the HPA System......Page 39
Dysregulation of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis in Affective Disorders......Page 41
1.2.2.1(i) CRH mutant mice......Page 42
1.2.2.1(ii) CRH receptor mutant mice......Page 43
1.2.2.1(iii) Glucocorticoid receptor mutant mice......Page 44
Nontargeted genetic approaches......Page 47
The Oxytocin and Vasopressin Systems......Page 49
Oxytocin......Page 50
The oxytocin receptor......Page 51
Vasopressin......Page 52
The vasopressin V1a receptor......Page 53
The vasopressin V1b receptor......Page 54
Different Types of Tachykinins and Receptors......Page 55
Function of Tachykinin Signaling......Page 56
Opioid Receptors......Page 57
mu-Opioid receptors in nociception, stress response, and post-traumatic stress disorder......Page 58
mu-Opioid receptors in reward, pleasure, and anxiety......Page 59
Endorphins......Page 61
Maturation of the beta-endorphin-precursor proopiomelanocortin......Page 62
beta-Endorphin in stress, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder......Page 63
kappa-Opioid receptors in anxiety and ethanol-induced anxiolysis......Page 64
Prodynorphin in analgesia, reward, and aversion......Page 65
delta-Opioid receptors in depression, anxiety, and ethanol-induced anxiolysis......Page 66
Enkephalins in nociception and anxiety......Page 67
Conclusion......Page 68
References......Page 69
2 Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Cortical Axis......Page 78
The Stress System......Page 79
The HPA Axis......Page 80
Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone......Page 81
Arginine Vasopressin......Page 83
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone......Page 84
Glucocorticoids......Page 85
Brain Regulation of Stress Responses......Page 86
Physiological Responses to Stress......Page 88
Hyperactive Conditions......Page 90
References......Page 93
Introduction......Page 100
Hyperthyroidism......Page 101
Subclinical Hypothyroidism......Page 102
Basal thyroid hormone levels......Page 103
Triiodothyronine......Page 105
Thyroxine......Page 106
Bipolar Disorder......Page 107
Use of thyroid hormones to treat bipolar disorder......Page 108
References......Page 109
4 Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis in Women......Page 116
Cell as Context......Page 117
Environment/Experience as Context......Page 118
Menstrual cycle......Page 120
Pregnancy and the postpartum......Page 121
Neurotransmitters......Page 123
The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis......Page 124
Neural systems......Page 125
Stress axis......Page 126
Introduction......Page 127
Physiological dimorphisms......Page 128
Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Ovarian Axis......Page 129
Context (Hormones as Triggers or Treatments)......Page 131
Hormonal Studies of Perimenopausal Depression......Page 132
Estrogen Treatment......Page 134
Postpartum Psychiatric Disorders......Page 135
Estrogen Treatment......Page 136
Gonadal Triggers in Context......Page 137
References......Page 138
5 Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis in Men......Page 150
GnRH Synthesis and Secretion......Page 151
GnRH Receptors......Page 152
LH and FSH Subunit Genes......Page 153
Roles of LH and FSH in the Male......Page 154
Gonadal peptides (inhibin, activins, and follistatins) and feedback regulation of FSH......Page 155
Testicular Steroidogenesis......Page 156
Fetal Leydig cell steroidogenesis......Page 157
Puberty......Page 158
Aberrations of timing of puberty......Page 159
T deficiency in the elderly......Page 160
T as a Hormone, Prehormone, and Paracrine Factor......Page 161
AR gene, protein structure, and regulatory proteins......Page 162
Role of T in Normal Sexual Function and Erectile Physiology......Page 163
Infectious and inflammatory disorders......Page 165
Testicular defects associated with systemic diseases......Page 166
Clinical manifestations of hypogonadism: Clinical history and physical examination......Page 167
Androgen preparations......Page 168
Spermatogenesis and Sperm Transport......Page 169
Gonadotropins and androgen regulation of spermatogenesis......Page 170
Gonadotropins and androgen regulation of programmed germ cell death......Page 172
Gonadotropins and androgens as germ cell survival factors......Page 173
Sertoli cell control of spermatogenesis......Page 174
Approach to the diagnosis of male infertility......Page 175
Decreased Libido......Page 176
Further Reading......Page 177
Are Sex Influences in the Human Brain Small and Unreliable?......Page 188
Sex Influences on Human Brain Function Generally Considered......Page 189
Sex-Related Hemispheric Lateralization of the Amygdala Relationship to Emotional Memory......Page 191
Sex Difference in Human Amygdala Functional Connectivity at Rest......Page 192
Other Influences of Sex on Neural and Hormonal Mechanisms of Emotional Memory......Page 193
Further Reading......Page 195
7 Sex Differences in CNS Neurotransmitter Influences on Behavior......Page 198
Introduction......Page 199
Sexual Diergism - Physiological Differences between the Sexes......Page 202
Sexual Diergism in Choline, Choline Transport, and Acetylcholine......Page 203
Sexual Diergism in Cholinergic Enzymes......Page 204
Sexual Diergism in Cholinergic Receptor Activity......Page 205
Influence of Gonadal Steroids on Cholinergic Systems......Page 206
Acetylcholine and the HPA axis......Page 207
Sexual diergism of HPA-axis responses to stimulation......Page 208
Sexual diergism of HPA-axis responses to cholinergic stimulation and antagonism......Page 210
Sexual Diergism, Gonadal Hormones, and Dopamine......Page 213
Sex Differences in GABAergic Systems......Page 214
Influence of Gonadal Steroids on GABAergic Sex Differences......Page 215
Sexual Diergism in GABAergic Systems......Page 216
Sexual Dimorphism and Diergism of Noradrenergic Systems......Page 217
Sexual Dimorphism and Diergism of Serotonergic Systems......Page 219
Sexual Dimorphism of AVP......Page 220
Sexual Diergism of AVP......Page 221
Influence of Gonadal Steroids on AVP Secretion......Page 222
Implications and Relevance of Sexual Diergism......Page 223
Behavioral Relevance of Sexual Diergism......Page 224
Therapeutic Implications of Sexual Diergism......Page 225
Conclusion......Page 226
References......Page 227
8 Gonadal Hormones and Sexual Differentiation of Human Brain and Behavior......Page 238
Organization and activation......Page 239
The classic model......Page 240
Complexity and multiple models......Page 241
Hormonal Influences on Human Sexual Differentiation: Sources of Information......Page 242
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia......Page 243
Turner syndrome......Page 244
Hormone Administration during Pregnancy......Page 245
Normal Variability in Hormones......Page 246
Core Gender Identity......Page 247
Cognitive abilities......Page 248
Perceptual speed and accuracy......Page 249
Neural asymmetries......Page 250
Core Gender Identity......Page 251
Sexual Orientation......Page 253
Childhood Play......Page 255
General intelligence......Page 257
Specific cognitive abilities......Page 258
Aggression......Page 261
Psychopathology......Page 262
Hand preferences......Page 263
Anterior hypothalamic/preoptic area......Page 264
The suprachiasmatic nucleus......Page 265
The corpus callosum......Page 266
The cerebral cortex......Page 267
Summary and Conclusions......Page 268
Mechanisms of Hormone Action......Page 269
References......Page 270
Introduction......Page 280
Ontogeny of Gonadotropin Secretion......Page 281
Physical Changes of Puberty......Page 282
Timing of Pubertal Onset......Page 283
Approaches to Identifying Genetic Factors......Page 284
Idiopathic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism......Page 286
Leptin and other genes......Page 287
Genetic Variation in Normal Puberty......Page 288
Quantitative Trait Loci Associated with Timing of Puberty......Page 289
Obesity and the Relationship to Pubertal Timing......Page 291
Psychosocial Changes of Puberty......Page 292
Brain Development during Puberty......Page 293
References......Page 294
10 The Biology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity......Page 302
Defining and Describing Homosexuality......Page 303
Hormonal influences......Page 304
Correlational studies......Page 305
Genetics studies......Page 308
Defining and Describing Transsexualism......Page 309
Transsexualism......Page 310
Theory......Page 311
Correlational studies......Page 312
Genetic studies......Page 314
Further Reading......Page 315
History of the Concept of Homosexuality......Page 322
The Hormonal Theories of Steinach......Page 323
Paradigm of Biomedical Research into Homosexuality......Page 324
The Search for Cross-Sex Endocrine Findings in Homosexuals......Page 326
Prenatal/Postnatal Testosterone Physiology......Page 327
Impact of Prenatal Hormones on Sexual Orientation/Gender Identity: Lessons from Clinical Syndromes......Page 328
Complete androgen insensitivity......Page 329
5α-Reductase deficiency......Page 330
Congenital adrenal (virilizing) hyperplasia in women......Page 331
Cloacal exstrophy......Page 332
Digit Ratios as Marker of Prenatal Testosterone......Page 333
The Fraternal Birth Order in Males......Page 334
Nucleus Intermedius......Page 335
Interstitial Nucleus of the Anterior Hypothalamus 3......Page 336
Conclusion......Page 337
References......Page 338
Introduction......Page 342
An Evolutionary Psychological Perspective......Page 343
Decision-Making Adaptations......Page 344
Adaptation versus Pathology......Page 345
Sexual Selection and Competition......Page 346
Homicide as an Assay of Competitive Confrontation and Risk Taking......Page 347
The Sex Difference in Human Intrasexual Competition and Violence......Page 348
Demography of Masculine Competitive and Risk-Taking Inclinations......Page 349
Discounting the Future......Page 352
Inequity and Lethal Competitive Violence......Page 354
Making Sense of Individual Differences......Page 356
Testosterone and the Modulation of Confrontational Competitive Risk Taking......Page 358
Testosterone as a Mediator of Mating Effort......Page 359
Testosterone's Costs and Honest Signaling......Page 361
Concluding Remarks......Page 363
Further Reading......Page 364
13 Prolactin Actions in the Brain......Page 370
PRL Secretion Is Inhibited by Dopamine from the Hypothalamus......Page 371
Short-Loop Negative Feedback......Page 372
Transport into the Central Nervous System......Page 375
High Levels of Expression of PRL Receptors in the Choroid Plexus......Page 376
PRL Receptors Are Widespread in the Hypothalamus......Page 377
Regulation of PRL Receptor Expression in the Brain......Page 379
Stress-Induced Changes in PRL Secretion......Page 380
Pregnancy......Page 381
Change in PRL signal transduction in TIDA neurons......Page 382
Role of ovarian steroids in the regulation of PRL feedback during pregnancy and lactation......Page 383
A proposed model for the pregnancy-induced adaptation of the neuroendocrine control of PRL secretion......Page 384
Maternal Behavior......Page 385
Regulation of Oxytocin Neurons......Page 387
Regulation of Reproductive Behavior and Fertility......Page 388
Appetite and Food Intake......Page 389
PRL and the Neurobiological Adaptation to Pregnancy and Lactation......Page 390
References......Page 391
14 Growth Hormone and Insulin-Like Growth Factor-I: Effects on the Brain......Page 404
GH Secretagogs......Page 405
Insulin-Like Growth Factor I......Page 406
GH Crosses the Blood-Brain Barrier......Page 407
Expression of GH in the Central Nervous Tissue......Page 408
IGFBPs in the Brain......Page 409
IGF as a Neurotropic and Antiapoptotic Factor......Page 410
Additional Effects of IGF-I on the Central and Peripheral Nervous System......Page 411
Effect of GH and/or IGF-I on Intellectual Performance......Page 412
Influence of Untreated and Treated GH and IGF-I Deficiency on Psychosocial Well-Being and Quality of Life......Page 414
GH and IGF-I Effects on Memory in Mice......Page 415
Psychological Effects of GH Administration to Nongrowth Hormone-Deficient Short Children......Page 416
Further Reading......Page 417
15 Neurosteroids: From Basic Research to Clinical Perspectives......Page 426
The Brain is an Endocrine Organ - Neurosteroidogenesis......Page 427
Metabolic Enzymes......Page 428
Actions of Neurosteroids through GABAA Receptors......Page 430
Neurosteroids and Gestation......Page 431
Neurosteroids and alcohol......Page 432
Neurosteroids and depression - etiology......Page 433
Neurosteroids and Mood Dysregulation......Page 434
Neurosteroids, Aging, Menopause, and Hormone Therapy......Page 435
Neurosteroids and AD......Page 436
Neurosteroids, Apoptosis, and Neurogenesis......Page 437
Further Reading......Page 438
16 Brain Peptides: From Laboratory to Clinic......Page 448
Introduction......Page 449
Functions of GHRH......Page 450
Growth Hormone......Page 451
Clinical Implications: Therapeutics......Page 452
Functions of GnRH......Page 453
Clinical Implications......Page 454
Localization......Page 455
Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone......Page 456
The CRH Receptor......Page 457
Clinical Implications......Page 458
TRH Function......Page 460
Clinical Implications......Page 461
Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone......Page 462
Functions of ACTH and MSH......Page 463
Clinical Implications......Page 464
Endomorphin......Page 466
Physiologic Roles of Opioids......Page 467
Clinical Implications......Page 468
Processing and Metabolism of Oxytocin......Page 469
Oxytocin Receptors......Page 470
Clinical Implications......Page 471
Physiologic Functions......Page 472
Clinical Implications of VP......Page 473
Localization......Page 474
CCK Physiology......Page 475
Clinical Implications......Page 476
Clinical Implications: Therapeutics......Page 477
Clinical Implications: Populations of Interest......Page 478
Orexins (Hypocretins)......Page 479
Further Reading......Page 480
Hormones......Page 496
Melatonin as a Neurohormone......Page 497
Circadian Physiology......Page 498
Melatonin as a Phase Marker......Page 501
Effects of Light on Circadian Rhythms......Page 502
Soporific Effects of Melatonin......Page 503
Blindness......Page 504
Advanced and Delayed Sleep Phase Syndromes......Page 505
Jet Lag......Page 506
Seasonal Affective Disorder (Winter Depression)......Page 507
A Possible Bioassay for Sensitivity to the Weak Zeitgebers Reveals a Gender Difference......Page 511
Further Reading......Page 512
18 Neuroendocrine-Immune Interactions: Implications for Health and Behavior......Page 518
Overview of the Immune System......Page 519
Innate versus Acquired Immunity......Page 520
Immune System Tests......Page 522
Foundations of Neuroendocrine-Immune Interactions......Page 523
Glucocorticoids......Page 525
Catecholamines......Page 526
Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone......Page 527
Other Factors......Page 528
Cytokine Network in the Brain......Page 529
Cytokine effects on glucocorticoid receptors......Page 530
Mechanisms of cytokine-induced depression/sickness behavior......Page 533
Acute Stress......Page 534
Chronic Stress......Page 538
Psychosocial Variables Mediating Neuroendocrine-Immune Interactions during Stress......Page 539
Major Depression and Immune Parameters......Page 540
Depression and Immune Activation......Page 541
A Neuroendocrine Diathesis Model of Inflammation......Page 543
Behavioral Interventions in Immunologic Disorders......Page 545
Immune Interventions in Behavioral Disorders......Page 546
References......Page 547
Part II: Endocrinologically Important Behavioral Syndromes......Page 554
19 Diseases of Hypothalamic Origin......Page 556
Hypothalamic Functions......Page 557
Water Metabolism......Page 558
Temperature Regulation......Page 559
Sleep-Wake Cycle and Circadian Rhythm Control......Page 561
Control of Anterior Pituitary Function......Page 562
Pathophysiological Principles......Page 563
Central diabetes insipidus......Page 564
Adipsic or essential hypernatremia......Page 566
Syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone......Page 567
Hyperthermia......Page 568
Hypothermia......Page 569
Diencephalic syndrome of infancy......Page 570
Anorexia nervosa......Page 571
Behavioral Abnormalities......Page 572
Precocious puberty......Page 573
Acromegaly......Page 574
Acquired hypogonadotropic hypogonadism......Page 575
Growth hormone deficiency......Page 576
Hypothalamic hypothyroidism......Page 577
Prader-Willi Syndrome......Page 578
Psychosocial Short Stature......Page 579
Hypothalamic Hamartoma......Page 581
Germ Cell Tumor......Page 582
Craniopharyngioma......Page 584
Suprasellar Arachnoid Cyst......Page 585
Histiocytosis......Page 586
Cranial Irradiation......Page 587
Traumatic Brain Injury......Page 588
References......Page 589
Stress, Fear, and Anxiety......Page 600
Anxiety Disorders and Stressful Events - Is There a Connection? The Role of Life Events......Page 601
Links between HPA axis and noradrenergic function in animal studies......Page 602
Anxiety and Fear - Neural Pathways......Page 603
The HPA Axis in PTSD......Page 605
Other Noradrenergic Markers in Panic Disorders......Page 608
Peripheral Sympathetic Nervous System Function in PTSD......Page 609
Behavioral Test versus Models of Anxiety Disorders......Page 610
Stressor characteristics......Page 611
Structural Neuroimaging in PTSD and Anxiety Disorders - Is Cortisol Bad for Your Hippocampus?......Page 612
Imaging of fear in normal controls......Page 613
Functional neuroimaging in anxiety disorders......Page 614
Symptom provocation......Page 615
Future directions in imaging of anxiety......Page 616
Further Reading......Page 617
21 Mood Disorders......Page 624
Diagnostic Criteria and Depressive Subtypes......Page 626
Neurocircuitry of Depression......Page 627
Acetylcholine and norepinephrine......Page 628
Other neuroendocrine peptides......Page 629
Secretion of Adrenocorticotropic Hormone and Cortisol in Depression......Page 630
Secretion of Arginine Vasopressin in Depression......Page 632
Dexamethasone suppression test......Page 633
Serotonergic stimulation......Page 634
Glucocorticoid Receptor Function in Depression......Page 635
Cortisol Synthesis Inhibitors and Glucocorticoid Receptor Antagonists in the Treatment of Depression......Page 636
Relationship to the HPA Axis......Page 637
Mode of action of thyroid hormone augmentation......Page 638
Norepinephrine......Page 639
Growth hormone-releasing hormone......Page 640
Peri/Postmenopausal Depressed Women......Page 641
Prolactin Responses to Serotonergic Challenges in Depression......Page 642
Opioid Peptides......Page 643
Cholecystokinin and Endogenous Opioids......Page 644
Summary......Page 645
Further Reading......Page 646
22 Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder......Page 652
Clinical Phenomenology......Page 653
Familial factors......Page 655
Biomedical Model......Page 656
Gonadal steroids/gonadotropins......Page 657
Neuroendocrine......Page 659
Baseline studies......Page 661
CSF studies......Page 663
beta-Endorphin......Page 664
Chronobiological Hypotheses......Page 665
Emergence of a Biopsychosocial Model......Page 667
Treatment......Page 668
References......Page 671
23 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder......Page 680
Introduction......Page 681
Twenty-Four-Hour Urinary Excretion of Cortisol......Page 682
Single-Time-Point Estimates of Basal Cortisol......Page 683
Cortisol Levels in Response to Stress......Page 684
Cortisol as a Pretraumatic Risk Factor......Page 685
Adrenocorticotropin Hormone......Page 686
CRF Challenge Findings......Page 687
The Dexamethasone Suppression Test......Page 688
Glucocorticoid Receptors......Page 690
Conclusions......Page 691
References......Page 692
Overview......Page 696
Anorexia Nervosa......Page 697
Reproductive System......Page 699
Thyroid Gland......Page 700
Leptin......Page 701
Glucose Homeostasis......Page 702
Other Endocrine Systems......Page 703
Functional Studies......Page 704
Endocrine Treatment......Page 705
References......Page 706
25 Aging and Alzheimer's Disease......Page 714
Diagnosis of AD......Page 715
Stages of AD......Page 716
Hormones, Aging, and AD......Page 717
Estrogen neuroprotection......Page 718
Endogenous estrogen-related risk factors......Page 719
Exogenous estrogen-related risk factors......Page 720
Estrogen......Page 721
Adrenal Hormones......Page 722
Glucocorticoids......Page 723
GCs: Prevention and treatment......Page 724
DHEA and risk of AD......Page 725
EPI and cognition......Page 726
NE and aging......Page 727
NE and AD......Page 728
Insulin and Diabetes: Risk for AD......Page 729
Nonpharmacological interventions......Page 730
Melatonin and Aging......Page 731
Melatonin: Prevention and Treatment......Page 732
COMT Gene......Page 733
Conclusion......Page 734
References......Page 735
26 Genetic Defects of Female Sexual Differentiation......Page 746
Introduction......Page 747
Primary Sex Determination: Sex Chromosomes Dictate Gonadal Sex......Page 748
Ovarian Development: Orchestrated by Ovary-Determining Genes?......Page 749
Secondary Sex Determination: Gonadal Hormones and the Sexual Phenotype......Page 751
Incidence and Origin of 45,X/46,XY Mosaicism......Page 752
Gonadal Histology, Tumor Risk, and Fertility......Page 753
Diagnosis and Treatment......Page 755
Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein mutations......Page 756
Glucocorticoid resistance......Page 758
Luteoma of pregnancy......Page 760
Müllerian Agenesis/Hypoplasia Syndromes......Page 761
Gender role behavior......Page 762
Sexual orientation and sexual functioning......Page 763
Gender identity......Page 764
Role of Androgens on Cognitive Capacities......Page 765
Concluding Remarks......Page 766
References......Page 767
27 Genetic Defects of Male Sexual Differentiation......Page 774
Formation of the Bipotential Gonad......Page 775
The Genetic and Hormonal Control of Male Sexual Differentiation......Page 776
The Genetic Control of Testicular Differentiation......Page 777
Enzymes and Genes Involved in Testosterone Biosynthesis......Page 778
3beta-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases......Page 779
17α-Hydroxylase/17,20-desmolase......Page 780
P450 oxidoreductase......Page 781
The enzyme 5α-reductase-2......Page 783
The androgen receptor......Page 784
The clinical syndrome of 17betaHSD3 deficiency......Page 787
Biochemical characterization of 17betaHSD3 deficiency......Page 788
The clinical syndrome of 5αRD2 deficiency......Page 789
Biochemical characterization of 5αRD2 deficiency......Page 791
Molecular genetics of 5αRD2 deficiency......Page 792
Molecular genetics of androgen insensitivity syndrome......Page 793
Hormone-Influence Theory in Gender Development......Page 795
Gender Identity in Subjects with 5αRD2 Deficiency......Page 796
Gender Identity in Subjects with 17betaHSD3 Deficiency......Page 799
Sex Differences in Cognitive Function and Laterality......Page 800
Cognitive Abilities in Androgen-Insensitive Subjects......Page 802
Other Studies of Cognitive Function in Hypogonadal Males......Page 803
References......Page 804
Socio-Cultural Norms Regarding Parenthood and Infertility......Page 812
Gonadotropins......Page 813
Loss of Sexual Satisfaction......Page 814
Loss of Confidence and/or Control......Page 815
Multiple Pregnancy as a Side Effect of ART......Page 816
Psychological Reaction to Multiple Parenthood......Page 817
Further Reading......Page 818
Historical Perspective......Page 822
Transsexual versus Gender Identity Disorder......Page 823
Hormone Treatment of Transsexual Persons......Page 824
Effects of Hormone Treatment in Male-to-Female Transsexual Persons......Page 825
Side Effects of Estrogen Therapy......Page 826
The Social and Emotional Challenges of Gender Transition......Page 827
Further Reading......Page 828
30 Disorders of Salt and Fluid Balance......Page 830
Physiology of Salt and Fluid Balance......Page 831
Mechanisms of urine concentration......Page 832
Water diffusion......Page 834
Regulation of Fluid and Salt Balance......Page 836
Hyponatremia......Page 838
Excessive renal loss of water......Page 839
AQP1 pathology......Page 840
AVP V2 receptor defects: X-linked nephrogenic diabetes insipidus......Page 841
Destruction of AVP-producing neurons......Page 842
Primary polydipsia......Page 843
Diagnostic Management of Polydipsia and Polyuria......Page 844
Treatment Options for Diabetes Insipidus......Page 845
Cerebral Salt-Wasting Syndrome......Page 846
Clinical presentation of CSWS......Page 847
Brain injury......Page 848
Others......Page 849
Pathophysiological concepts of CSWS......Page 850
Pathophysiology of SIAD......Page 852
Conditions favoring SIAD......Page 853
Diagnosis of CSWS and SIAD......Page 854
Therapy of hyponatremia in CSWS and SIAD......Page 855
Further Reading......Page 858
31 Diabetes Mellitus and Neurocognitive Dysfunction......Page 862
Type 1 Diabetes......Page 863
Neurocognitive Phenotypes......Page 864
Cognitive manifestations......Page 865
Electrophysiological changes......Page 866
Cerebrovascular outcomes......Page 867
Brain structure anomalies......Page 868
Cognitive manifestations......Page 869
Cerebrovascular outcomes......Page 871
Brain structure anomalies......Page 872
Cognitive manifestations......Page 873
Electrophysiological changes......Page 874
Cerebrovascular outcomes......Page 875
Brain structure anomalies......Page 876
Alterations in brain metabolites......Page 877
Biomedical Risk Factors......Page 878
Do single or recurrent episodes of less severe hypoglycemia have neurocognitive sequelae?......Page 879
Clinically significant microvascular complications predict cognitive impairment......Page 880
Chronic hyperglycemia may interfere with normal brain development......Page 881
Hyperglycemia, Insulin Dysregulation, and Brain Dysfunction......Page 882
Diabetes and Brain Dysfunction: Some Final Thoughts......Page 883
References......Page 884
32 Alcohol Abuse: Endocrine Concomitants......Page 894
Introduction......Page 895
Anovulation and luteal-phase defects in social drinkers......Page 896
Amenorrhea......Page 897
Provocative tests of hormonal function......Page 898
Mechanisms of follicular-phase dysruption......Page 899
Possible mechanisms underlying anovulation and luteal-phase dysfunction......Page 900
Effects of alcohol on ovarian hormones during the follicular phase......Page 901
Effects of alcohol on ovarian hormones during the luteal phase......Page 902
Mechanisms concerning alcohol-induced increases in circulating estrogens......Page 903
Corticotropin-Releasing Factor......Page 904
Prolactin......Page 905
Acute effects of alcohol on prolactin......Page 906
Acute alcohol effects on the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal or adrenal axis......Page 907
Chronic alcohol effects on the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal or adrenal axis......Page 908
Chronic alcohol effects: Estrogen and breast cancer......Page 909
Implications of Alcohol-Induced Changes in Maternal Reproductive Hormones for Pregnancy and Fetal Growth and Development......Page 910
Ovarian Steroid Hormones and Teratogenesis......Page 911
Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Factors in Teratogenesis......Page 912
Alcohol Use and Spontaneous Abortion......Page 913
Animal models of FAS......Page 914
Possible mechanisms of FAS......Page 915
Testosterone......Page 916
Luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone/follicle-stimulating hormone/luteinizing hormone......Page 917
Adrenocorticotropic hormone......Page 918
Further Reading......Page 919
Introduction......Page 930
Acute Response of the HPA Axis to Smoking......Page 931
Mechanism of HPA Activation by Nicotine......Page 932
Smoking, depression, and the HPA axis......Page 933
Schizophrenia, smoking, and the HPA axis......Page 934
HPA Response to Stress in Smokers......Page 935
HPA Changes Associated with Nicotine Addiction......Page 937
Brain regions involved in nicotine addiction and regulation of HPA axis......Page 938
Smoking, anxiety, and nicotinic acetylcholinergic receptors......Page 939
Nicotinic acetylcholinergic receptors and schizophrenia......Page 940
Nicotinic acetylcholinergic receptors and depression......Page 941
Thyroid Hormone......Page 942
Sex Hormones......Page 943
Smoking and Osteoporosis......Page 945
Summary......Page 946
References......Page 947
Introduction......Page 956
Background......Page 957
Acute effects of cocaine on basal levels of ACTH and cortisol......Page 958
Acute effects of cocaine on pulsatile release of ACTH......Page 959
Clinical Studies of Chronic Cocaine Effects on ACTH and Cortisol......Page 960
Clinical Studies of the HPA Axis and Cocaine's Behavioral Effects......Page 961
CRH antagonists: Development and behavioral implications......Page 963
Changes in gonadotropin and gonadal steroid hormone levels across the menstrual cycle......Page 965
Regulation of pulsatile gonadotropin release patterns......Page 966
Acute effects of cocaine on LH in men and women......Page 967
Implications of cocaine's stimulation of LH......Page 968
Background......Page 970
Sex, menstrual-cycle phase, and cocaine pharmacokinetics......Page 972
Sex, menstrual-cycle phase, and cocaine's subjective effects......Page 973
Background......Page 976
Studies of the Effects of Chronic Cocaine Administration on Reproductive Function......Page 978
Conclusions......Page 981
Further Reading......Page 982
Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis......Page 992
Steady-State Methadone by Osmotic Pumps DecreasesCocaine-Seeking Behavior in Animal Models......Page 993
Involvement of Arginine Vasopressin and V1b Receptor in Drug Withdrawal and Heroin Seeking Precipitated by Stress and by Heroi......Page 994
Clinical Research Update and Overview......Page 995
Clinical Studies of Pharmacokinetics of Heroin and Morphine as Contrasted with Methadone......Page 999
Clinical Studies of HPA Axis......Page 1000
Tuberoinfundibular Dopaminergic/Prolactin System Interactions......Page 1009
mu-Opioid Receptor Binding in Healthy Normal and Methadone-Maintained Volunteers......Page 1011
Human Molecular Genetics of Heroin Addiction of the Endogenous Opioid Systems and Polymorphisms of Genes......Page 1013
References......Page 1015
36 Pain: Sex/Gender Differences......Page 1022
How Is Pain Classified?......Page 1023
How Is Pain Measured?......Page 1024
Pain, Epidemiology, and Sex/Gender Differences......Page 1025
Pain, Nociception, and Sex/Gender Differences......Page 1026
Pain Mechanisms and Sex/Gender Differences......Page 1027
Physiology: Cardiovascular system as an example......Page 1028
Pelvic Organs......Page 1029
The Influence of Sex Steroid Hormones on Pain and Nociception......Page 1030
Potential Mechanisms: The Descending Pain Modulatory Circuit......Page 1031
Fetus, Childhood, and Puberty......Page 1032
Gonadal Aging and Senescence......Page 1033
Pharmaceutical Therapies......Page 1034
Sex differences in short- and longer-term effects of opioids......Page 1035
Advantages of varying and combining therapies......Page 1036
Coronary artery disease......Page 1037
Further Reading......Page 1038
Incidence......Page 1044
Anatomy and Physiology of the Pituitary and Hypothalmus......Page 1045
Chronic TBI......Page 1047
Prolactin......Page 1048
Steroids......Page 1050
Gonadotropins......Page 1051
Metabolic Effects of GHD......Page 1052
Cognitive Impact of Post-Traumatic GHD......Page 1053
Posterior Pituitary Dysfunction Following TBI......Page 1054
How to Screen......Page 1055
Symptoms of a TBI and PTH......Page 1056
References......Page 1057
38 Human Immunodeficiency Virus and AIDS......Page 1060
CD4+ Cell Count versus Clinical Complications of HIV Infection......Page 1061
Neurocognitive Impairment Associated with HIV Infection......Page 1062
Secondary Neuropsychiatric Processes Related to HIV Infection......Page 1063
Adrenal insufficiency (Addison's disease)......Page 1064
Adrenal excess and Cushing's syndrome......Page 1065
Diagnostic strategies and therapeutic considerations......Page 1066
Common iatrogenic causes of hypogonadism in HIV-infected patients......Page 1067
Diagnostic strategies and therapeutic considerations......Page 1068
HIV-related hypothyroidism......Page 1069
Morphologic and Metabolic Abnormalities in HIV-Infected Patients......Page 1070
Neuropsychiatric impact of LD in HIV-infected patients......Page 1071
References......Page 1072
Subject Index......Page 1080