High-Speed Electronics and Optoelectronics: Devices and Circuits

Cover......Page 1
Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
Preface......Page 9
Anand Gopinath......Page 11
Joint acknowledgements......Page 12
Part One Devices......Page 13
1.1 Executive summary......Page 15
1.2 Semiconductor materials......Page 16
1.4 Crystal structure......Page 17
1.5 Crystal directions and planes......Page 18
1.6.1 Covalent bonding......Page 20
1.7.1 The photoelectric effect......Page 21
1.7.2 The Bohr model of the atom......Page 22
1.8 The de Broglie relation......Page 23
1.9.1 Probability and the uncertainty principle......Page 24
1.9.2 The wave equation......Page 25
1.12 The Kronig–Penney model......Page 28
1.12.1 Effective mass......Page 29
1.13.2 Extrinsic semiconductors......Page 30
1.13.4 Electron and hole distribution......Page 31
1.14 Direct and indirect semiconductors......Page 32
1.14.1 Absorption processes......Page 33
1.14.2 Exciton absorption......Page 36
1.15 Recombination and radiation in semiconductors......Page 37
1.15.1 Spontaneous and stimulated emission......Page 38
1.16.2 Diffusion current......Page 41
1.17 p–n junction......Page 42
1.17.2 The depletion layer width......Page 44
1.17.5 Current–voltage characteristics......Page 45
1.18 Schottky diode......Page 46
1.19 Heterostructures......Page 47
1.19.1 Constructing heterostructure band diagrams......Page 49
1.19.2 Band line-up......Page 50
1.19.3 Lattice mismatch......Page 51
1.20 Silicon–germanium heterostructures......Page 52
1.21 Problems......Page 55
References......Page 57
2.2.1 Introduction and current control mechanism......Page 58
2.2.2 Drain current using a constant-mobility assumption......Page 62
2.2.3 Constant-velocity approximation......Page 63
2.2.4 Large-signal CAD model......Page 67
Capacitance model......Page 68
Parasitic circuit elements......Page 69
MESFET small-signal equivalent circuit......Page 70
Transit frequency......Page 72
Maximum frequency of oscillation......Page 73
Microwave noise......Page 74
2.2.7 MESFETs in the third millennium......Page 76
2.3.1 The importance of Coulomb scattering......Page 79
2.3.2 Charge control......Page 81
A practical HEMT example......Page 86
Channel current – constant mobility......Page 87
Channel current – constant velocity......Page 89
2.3.3 Small-signal parameters......Page 90
2.3.5 Non-ideal behaviour......Page 92
Non-ideal HEMT behaviour for large VGS......Page 93
Trapping effects......Page 95
Pulse-doped HEMT structure......Page 97
Pseudomorphic HEMT structure......Page 98
Metamorphic HEMT......Page 99
Static current equations......Page 100
Non-linear capacitance equations......Page 102
2.3.8 MESFET versus HEMT: a small-signal comparison......Page 103
2.3.9 A practical HEMT example......Page 105
2.4.1 Introduction......Page 107
Basic MOSFET structure......Page 108
MOS diode operation......Page 109
2.4.2 Drain current......Page 112
Constant-mobility model......Page 113
Channel length modulation.......Page 114
Short-channel effect.......Page 115
Velocity saturation......Page 117
2.4.3 Large-signal modelling......Page 118
2.4.4 Small-signal model and RF performance......Page 121
Transit frequency.......Page 122
Microwave noise.......Page 124
2.5.1 Homojunction bipolar transistors......Page 127
Diffusion triangle......Page 128
Collector current equation......Page 129
Ideal base current......Page 130
Non-ideal current contributions......Page 131
Non-ideal current gain......Page 132
Saturation......Page 133
Early effect......Page 134
Kirk effect......Page 136
2.5.2 Small-signal dynamic behaviour......Page 137
Transit frequency.......Page 141
Maximum frequency of oscillation.......Page 142
2.5.3 Microwave noise performance of bipolar transistors......Page 143
Drift field in the base......Page 146
Collector transit time optimisation......Page 147
The base design dilemma......Page 148
The wide-gap emitter......Page 149
Drift base......Page 151
Group III–V HBTs.......Page 152
Si/SiGe HBTs.......Page 155
III–V versus Si/SiGe HBTs – a brief comparison.......Page 158
The Gummel–Poon model......Page 159
The VBIC95 model......Page 162
The MEXTRAM model......Page 164
The HICUM model......Page 165
Differences between BJTs and HBTs relevant to large-signal modelling......Page 167
2.6 Problems......Page 168
References......Page 170
3.2 Optimisation of device models......Page 175
3.3 Simulated annealing......Page 176
3.4 Neural networks applied to modelling......Page 180
3.4.1 Massively distributed computing networks......Page 182
3.4.2 Multi-layer perceptron neural networks......Page 183
3.4.3 Hopfield recurrent neural networks......Page 186
3.5 Optimisation of neural networks by the genetic algorithm......Page 192
3.6 Structured genetic algorithm......Page 193
3.7 Semi-analytical device parameter extraction......Page 196
3.7.1 Theoretical analysis......Page 197
3.7.2 Results of the parameter extraction......Page 210
3.8.1 Theoretical approximations of Z-parameters for the HBT......Page 215
3.8.2 Z-Parameters at zero bias or ‘cold’ biases......Page 220
3.8.3 Parameter extraction......Page 221
3.9 Small-signal model of the collector-up (inverted) HBT......Page 224
3.10 Problems......Page 226
References......Page 230
4.2 Optical sources......Page 233
4.2.2 Light-emitting diodes......Page 234
Modulation response......Page 238
LED structures......Page 239
Basic concepts......Page 241
Optical waveguides in semiconductors lasers......Page 243
Emission characteristics......Page 250
Rate equations......Page 256
Steady-state and dynamic characteristics......Page 260
Laser noise......Page 265
Quantum well and quantum dot lasers......Page 267
High-speed lasers......Page 271
4.3 Photodetectors......Page 273
4.3.1 Preliminaries......Page 274
4.3.2 Photoconductor detectors......Page 275
4.3.3 P–I–N diodes......Page 277
4.3.4 Avalanche photodiodes......Page 283
4.3.5 Metal–semiconductor–metal detectors......Page 289
4.3.6 Travelling wave p–i–n photodiodes......Page 291
4.4 Problems......Page 296
References......Page 297
Part Two Circuits......Page 301
5.2.1 Scattering parameter theory......Page 303
Properties of scattering parameters......Page 306
5.2.2 The Smith chart......Page 307
5.2.3 Impedance matching......Page 309
5.2.4 Power gains for amplifier design......Page 310
Input and output reflection coefficients for arbitrary terminations......Page 311
Powers at input and load......Page 312
Power gain definitions......Page 313
5.2.5 Stability......Page 314
Stability circles......Page 315
Rollet’s stability factor......Page 316
5.2.7 Mason’s unilateral gain......Page 317
5.3.1 Noise phenomena......Page 318
5.3.2 Noise figure......Page 319
Noise figure of cascaded two-ports......Page 321
5.3.3 Noise figure with arbitrary generator admittance......Page 322
Associated gain......Page 324
5.4.1 A brief historical discourse......Page 325
5.4.2 Fundamental amplifier configurations......Page 326
y matrix representation......Page 327
Common source/common emitter: node 0 as the common node......Page 328
Miller effect......Page 330
Common gate/common base: node 1 as the common node......Page 331
Common drain/common collector: node 2 as the common node......Page 333
5.4.3 Feedback......Page 335
Use of feedback in small-signal amplifiers......Page 336
Port matching......Page 337
Bandwidth improvement......Page 338
Common-drain/common-source configuration......Page 341
Darlington amplifier......Page 344
Cascode amplifier......Page 345
Differential mode......Page 348
Common mode......Page 350
A more complex differential amplifier example......Page 351
5.4.6 Source-coupled amplifier......Page 353
Resonant loads......Page 354
Input and output matching networks......Page 356
5.4.8 Broadband amplifier techniques......Page 362
Shunt peaking......Page 363
Feedback techniques......Page 365
5.4.9 Distributed amplification......Page 366
General design procedure......Page 368
Gain and loss in distributed amplifiers......Page 370
Matching input and output capacitances......Page 371
Distributed amplifiers with a cascode cell......Page 372
40 GHz bandwidth distributed amplifier using GaAs pHEMTs......Page 373
A distributed amplifier on Si using Si/SiGe HBTs......Page 375
5.4.10 Low-noise amplifier......Page 377
Single-tone excitation......Page 382
Two-tone excitation......Page 384
Adjacent channel power ratio......Page 387
Classes of operation......Page 388
Switched amplifiers......Page 389
Class D amplifier......Page 391
Class E and F amplifiers......Page 393
5.5.1 Resonators – a brief overview......Page 395
Quality factor......Page 396
5.5.2 Self-excitation criteria......Page 397
5.5.3 Non-linearity in oscillators......Page 399
5.5.4 Oscillator topologies......Page 400
Voltage-controlled oscillators......Page 404
5.5.5 Noise in oscillators......Page 405
5.6 Mixers......Page 408
5.6.1 Transconductance multiplier......Page 409
5.6.2 Resistive mixer......Page 410
5.6.3 Single-balanced mixer......Page 413
5.6.4 Double-balanced mixer......Page 414
5.6.5 Micromixer......Page 416
5.6.6 Diode-based mixers......Page 418
5.6.7 Image-rejection mixer topologies......Page 419
5.6.8 Mixer noise figure......Page 423
5.7.1 Passive baluns and unbals......Page 424
5.7.2 Active baluns and unbals......Page 426
5.7.3 Quadrature generation......Page 429
5.8 Problems......Page 431
References......Page 433
Index......Page 435